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Draft:Portraits of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart

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  • Comment: Please read my extensive suggestions for improvement at the draft talk page. CurryTime7-24 (talk) 21:37, 21 November 2024 (UTC)
  • Comment: The draft subject is notable. Per WP:NOTREPOSITORY and WP:IG, the gallery at the end of the article needs to be trimmed. Remaining images may be spread out where relevant in the draft. Much of the draft is currently written in a persuasive and subjective manner that needs to be rewritten. CurryTime7-24 (talk) 03:20, 20 November 2024 (UTC)

Detail of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart from the 1780 Salzburg family portrait.

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart's likeness is depicted in various paintings. The posthumous 1819 painting by Barbara Krafft is the best known of all, but a large number of other types of representations exist. A few were made during Mozart's own lifetime, but most of them were realised after his death, as Mozart became extremely popular and subject of pervasive legends. According to Robert Bory, sixty-two portraits of Mozart and pictorial representations of all kinds exist,[1] but they vary widely in size, support, technique used, style and the degree of fidelity shown of the model.

Several musicologists and Mozart experts, such as Arthur Hutchings, Arthur Schurig, Martin Braun and Alfred Einstein have examined these portraits, expressing various degrees of disappointment on the quality of the pictures, manifesting an opposition between the enormous amount of artworks that represent the genius and the scarce iconographic value of them.[2] Schurig stated in 1913 the following: "Mozart has been the subject of more portraits quite unrelated to his actual appearance than any other famous man. An adoring posterity has not conceived a more incorrect physical image of any other notability".[3] For his part, Alfred Einstein expressed his opinion about these portraits in the following statement: "No earthly remains of Mozart survived save a few wretched portraits, no two of which are alike".[4]

These statements led musicologists and art historians to undertake a rigorous analysis of most existing paintings, miniatures, sketches, drawings, cameos, and engravings of the composer. Julius Leisching[5] and Max Zenger[6] made a first selection and, finally, Otto Erich Deutsch established a list of the authentic portraits and the forgeries, mostly from the XIX century.[7] The conclusion of this was that only eight works of art,[3] all of them of unequal interest, were produced by authors who knew Mozart directly, or by sketches taken from drawings made from life. From this selection afterwards, Mozart's "biographical paintings" have been published with more care, generally following the criteria that emerged from this analysis.[3]

Detail of the unfinished Lange portrait. Considered by Constanze to be the most faithful of all her husband's portraits.[8][9][10][11]

Thus, it seems appropriate to point out a list of authors, contemporaries of the composer, who signed loose portraits of Mozart:[3][12] Pompeo Batoni, François Joseph Bosio, Breitkopf, Joseph Duplessis, Nicolò Grassi, Jean-Baptiste Greuze, Giambettino Cignaroli, Louis Carrogis Carmontelle, Johann Nepomuk della Croce, Dominicus van der Smissen, Martin Knoller, Dora Stock, and Pietro Antonio Lorenzoni, among many others. The study of these portraits can be interesting since, although they are not faithful to the physical features of the composer, they provide important iconographic data either on musical instruments, or on other personalities that appear in them.[3]

Beyond the small number of authenticated portraits, we find a broad quantity of dubious and outright inauthentic paintings that supposedly represent Mozart. We find three types in the latter category; first are the portraits (most often young male musicians) of other people, which are claimed later on to be Mozart. Second are the fabricated forgeries of various kinds, created to either earn money or gain notoriety, in which the model is claimed to represent Mozart. And the third category is formed by fantastical paintings, produced by the artist's pure imagination with no basis in Mozart's actual extant iconography. Most of these are usually inspired by common myths and legends about Mozart, adding to the inconsistent portrayal of the composer in art, an issue that persist even to this day.[13]

Authentic portraits of Mozart

[edit]
  • Anonymous 1763 portrait shows Mozart in front of a keyboard looking at the viewer, dressed in court costumes given to him in 1762 as a gift from Empress Maria Theresa, which came from the wardrobe of Archduke Maximilian Francis of Austria,[14] as documented in a letter by Wolfgang's father Leopold Mozart on October 19, 1762.[15] It is considered to be the earliest authentic portrait of Mozart, being commissioned by Leopold himself. It is attributed to Austrian painter Pietro Antonio Lorenzoni,[16] who also painted Wolfgang's sister Maria Anna Mozart. The artist executed first the interiors, instruments and clothes before the children posed.[17] The technique used is oil on canvas, being currently owned by the Mozarteum in Salzburg (inherited directly from the Mozart family)[14] and displayed at Mozart's birthplace.
  • Carmontelle's Mozart family portrait shows Wolfgang at the harpsichord, with Leopold behind playing the violin and Maria Anna in front of him, holding the page of a score. It was painted by French artist Louis Carrogis Carmontelle during the stay of the Mozart family in Paris between 1763-64,[18] part of the grand family tour through most of Western Europe. It was commissioned by Baron Melchior von Grimm, patron of the Mozarts at the time.[19] The subsequent engraving copy made from it is documented in a letter from Leopold to Lorenz Hagenauer on 1 April 1764.[20] A large number of copies of the engraving were made, which Leopold used for advertising and gift purposes, and some of which he also sold.[21]

    Mozart's sister was referring to the engraving when she wrote to Breitkopf & Sohn on November 24, 1799:[22]

    I am also sending you a copperplate engraving that was engraved when we were in Paris. From this you can see that my brother was a very pretty child. It was only after the smallpox [1767] that he became so disfigured: and even more so when he returned from Italy [1771], he acquired the Italian yellow colour that made him completely unrecognizable. He was a small but well-proportioned child".[23][24]

    The technique used is watercolour on paper, with subsequent copies being made on griffel, sanguine, gouache, and engraving. The original is currently owned by and exhibited at the Musée Condé in the Château de Chantilly.[25]
  • Anonymous Verona portrait shows Mozart looking at the viewer while playing the dubious "Molto allegro" in G major (K.72a),[26] in a harpsichord made in Venice on 1583 by luthier Giovanni Celestius.[27] It was painted in Verona between January 6-7 of 1770,[28] commissioned by Venetian tax collector Pietro Lugiati, who also housed Mozart and his father during their stay in the city.[29] Leopold Mozart reports on the origins of this picture in his letter to his wife on January 7, 1770.[30][31] The authorship is disputed between Saverio Dalla Rosa and Giambettino Cignaroli.[32] Arthur Schurig considered it to be the best and most faithful portrait of Mozart as a young man.[33] The technique employed is oil on canvas. It was previously owned by the descendants of pianist Alfred Cortot,[34] but it was sold to an anonymous art collector in 2019 at a Christie's auction house in Paris. Initally valued at around one million euros, the painting was finally acquired for over four million,[35] making it not only the most valuable portrait of Mozart, but the most valuable artefact related to the composer.
  • Anonymous 1773 miniature shows the upper-half of Mozart while looking at the viewer. It was apparently painted in Milan in 1773, during the third journey of Mozart in Italy. It is attributed to the Austrian-Italian artist Martin Knoller, who was a teacher in the academy of arts of Milan at the time.[36] Knoller was known to the Mozart family even before the first trip to Italy, according to a letter by Leopold to his wife on 17 February 1770.[37][38] The portrait was in possession of Wolfgang's sister Maria Anna Mozart, possibly given by Mozart himself. The dating of this picture derives from a letter of 2 July 1819, in which she referred to the painting.[39][40][41] Barbara Krafft probably took it, alongside the Salzburg family portrait and Lange's miniature as a basis for her own posthumous portrait. Despite this, a few experts still cast doubts on the authenticity of the portrait.[42] The technique used is watercolour on ivory, surrounded by a leather frame. It is currently owned by the Mozarteum in Salzburg.[43]
  • Salzburg family portrait shows Wolfgang and his sister Maria Anna playing four hands on a keyboard, with Leopold by the side holding a violin. In the wall hangs a medallion with the picture of Anna Maria Mozart, who had died suddenly in 1778 while accompanying Wolfgang in travel to Paris.[53] The small statue of Apollo in the background symbolizes the musical nature of the Mozart family.[54] The portrait was painted between 1780-81, traditionally attributed to Johann Nepomuk della Croce, but this is disputed by scholars such as Simon Keefe, who claims it was created in an anonymous Salzburg workshop,[55] and George Dieter, who points a name confusion as the origin of the supposed attribution.[56] The painting was commissioned by Leopold,[57] and its progress is referenced in a series of letters between Wolfgang, Maria Anna and Leopold.[58][59][60][61][62][63] After Mozart's death, Barbara Krafft used his portrayal as a basis for her own posthumous portrait.[64] In 1829, when Mary and Vincent Novello met with and interviewed Constanze Mozart, her son Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart stated that the image of Wolfgang in this painting was one of the best likenesses of him.[65] The technique used is oil on canvas, being currently owned and exhibited at the Mozarteum in Salzburg.[66]
  • Lange's unfinished portrait shows the bust of Mozart (without wig). It was painted between 1782-83[67] by Austrian actor and amateur painter Joseph Lange, who was brother-in-law of Mozart. It was originally a completed miniature before being affixed to a larger canvas, probably with the intention to portray the composer playing the keyboard, but the enlarged painting was never completed,[68][69] fostering false theories that it was begun shortly before Mozart's death in 1791. This miniature origin was rediscovered in 2009 by musicologist Michael Lorenz, after a very intensive restoration in the early 1960s had blurred the limits.[70] In spring of 1783, Mozart had the miniature sent to his father in Salzburg, alongside with a similar one of Constanze, both referenced in a letter.[71][72] Lange had a personal relationship with Mozart beyond common family ties, both were masons and socialized around the same circles.[73]

    Lange had a couple of roles in Mozart's works, most notably the Musik zu einer Pantomime (K. 446/416d)[74] and the comic singspiel Der Schauspieldirektor (K. 486).[75] Lange also painted a small portrait of Constanze in 1782 which was later also enlarged.[76] During Leopold Mozart's visit to Vienna in 1785, Lange drew a portrait of him as well, but this depiction was lost.[77] After Mozart's death, when Constanze was interviewed by Vincent and Mary Novello, she said that Lange's portrait was "by far the best likeness of him".[78] On the other hand, Schurig described it as "of little artistic value, but despite the intention to beautify it, it is not without charm".[79] The technique used is oil on canvas, being currently owned and exhibited at the Mozarteum in Salzburg.[80]
  • Anonymous 1783-85 portrait shows a side profile of the upper-half of Mozart. It is dated circa 1783-85 and attributed to Austrian artist Joseph Hickel, who was part of the Austrian Imperial Court.[81] The painting was in possession of the Hagenauer family, which had strong ties with the Mozarts.[82] It was bought in 2005 by an American collector and rediscovered in a 2008 auction in London, which began an authentication process.[83] It is considered authentic by the Mozarteum in Salzburg, supported by experts Cliff Eisen,[84] Simon Keefe[85] and Martin Braun[86] among others. Eisen pointed out that the red coat of the painting matched with the description of a coat Mozart desired and obtained in two letters.[87][88] Braun realised an extensive study of the painting, comparing with the authentic ones and analysing the facial features, coming to the conclusion it was authentic.[89] The technique used is oil on canvas, currently being owned by a private collector.
  • Stock's 1789 miniature shows another side-profile of the composer. It was realised during Mozart's stay in Dresden in April 1789, as part of his last series of travels. Mozart paid a visit to the consistorial councillor Christian Gottfried Körner, a friend of Friedrich Schiller. Körner's sister-in-law Dora Stock was a talented artist and took the occasion to sketch a portrait of Mozart.[90][91][92] It is considered the last authentic portrait of Mozart before his death in 1791. Some doubts are cast by Cliff Eisen[93] and other experts,[94] most notably because of the lack of mentions in the Mozart correspondence, but it is still widely considered to be authentic. The technique used is silverpoint on ivory board, being currently owned by the Mozarteum in Salzburg. Due to its fragility and the potential harm of the sun, the original is protected in the museum vault, only a copy being exhibited.
  • Krafft's posthumous 1819 portrait is, by far, the most common and famous portrait of Mozart, enjoying enormous popularity since the Mozart bicentenary of 1956, and is frequently reproduced in books and online.[95] It was created in 1819 (twenty-eight years after Mozart's death) by Austrian painter Barbara Krafft,[96] commissioned by Joseph Sonnleithner for a portrait collection of well-known composers in the Society of Friends of Music in Vienna.[97] For the task, Krafft was supplied with three portraits of Mozart given by Maria Anna Mozart;[98][99][100] (1) Possibly the 1773 miniature (2) The 1780 Salzburg family portrait and (3) The miniature version of the Lange portrait.[101] Thus, despite being painted posthumously, the portrait is considered as very accurate to Mozart's real appearance, as corroborated by her sister Maria Anna.[102][103][104] The technique used is oil on canvas, being currently part of the collection of Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde.

Dubious portraits of Mozart

[edit]
  • Greuze's portrait supposedly shows the upper-half of Mozart as painted by French artist Jean-Baptiste Greuze. Like the Carmontelle's watercolour, it was apparently created during the stay of the Mozart family in Paris in 1763-64.[105] Before the attribution of the sitter as Mozart, the picture was known as "portrait of a boy", and Greuze being the painter was speculated. The rediscovered portrait was first exhibited at the Mozart Museum in Salzburg, during the Mozart Festival of 1910 from July 25 to October 28.[106] The authorship of Greuze was confirmed after his signature was found in the portrait. However, the identification of the sitter as Mozart has never been fully confirmed, and therefore should be treated with scepticism.

    We find no mention of the painting in the correspondence of the Mozart family, nor the biographers of Mozart or Greuze mention it. Leisching and Schurig described the portrait as either inauthentic or a forgery,[107][108] but this was before the signature and other details were discovered. Deutsch also considered it to be inauthentic.[109] Composer and neurobiologist Martin Braun realised an extensive study of the portrait, analysing the facial features and compared them with the known authentic portraits of Mozart. He came to the conclusion that not only the painting was authentic, but that the model was effectively Mozart himself.[110] This claim is supported by Mozart lecturer Daniel N. Leeson. The technique used is oil on canvas. It is currently owned by Yale University and exhibited at Yale University Art Gallery.[111]
  • Anonymous's dual miniature portrait supposedly represents Wolfgang and his sister Maria Anna, who holds a music score on her hand. It was created circa 1763-67, being attributed to Austrian court miniaturist Johann Eusebius Alphen (1741–1772). Alphen met the Mozart family on several occasions in those years in Brussels, Paris and Vienna.[112][113][114] Arthur Schurig included the miniature in his list of inauthentic Mozart portraits, but without bringing any concrete evidence as of why.[115] On the other hand, Canadian musicologist and Mozart expert Cliff Eisen came to the conclusion that the miniature was authentic.[116] However, it is still considered doubtful by most experts. The technique employed is watercolour and opaque or poster paint on ivory, being currently owned by the Mozarteum in Salzburg.
  • Anonymous 1767-68 portrait supposedly shows Mozart holding a score while looking at the viewer. It was apparently painted circa 1767-68 in Vienna,[117] authorship being disputed between Johann Eusebius Alphen and Pietro Antonio Lorenzoni. According to Mozart expert Manfred Schmid, the painting was in possession of the Hagenauer family (whose members were very close to the Mozart family and frequently appear in their correspondence),[118] Their Mozart collection was sold circa 1920 in Cologne. However, lack of provenance on the painting has kept experts and researchers divided as to its authentication. Mozart musicologist Rudolph Angermüller expressed positive views on the portrait. The technique used is unknown. It is currently owned and displayed at the Mozarteum in Salzburg.[119]
  • Anonymous Florence portrait apparently shows Mozart at the keyboard, surrounded by the Gavard des Pivets family and Thomas Linley playing the violin. It was supposedly painted in Florence in 1770, where Leopold and Wolfgang encountered violinist Pietro Nardini, whom they had met at the start of their grand tour of Europe.[120]. However, no firm authorship of any artist has been established yet. Giuseppe Maria Gavard des Pivets was the finance administrator of the court of Grand Duke of Tuscany Leopoldo I (later Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II).[121] Wolfgang also met Thomas Linley, an English violin prodigy and a pupil of Nardini. The two formed a close friendship, making music and playing together "not as boys but as men", as Leopold remarked.[122][123] However, we find no mention of a painting being made for the occasion, nor any reference to a pictorial representation is in the correspondence of the Mozart family, and thus the portrait is considered dubious. The technique used is oil on canvas. It was previously owned by the descendants of pianist Alfred Cortot, being currently owned by a private collector after it was sold in an auction in 2019.[124]
  • Jean-Baptiste Delahaye's portrait apparently represents the upper-half of Mozart. It is dated 1772 and executed by French painter Jean-Baptiste Delahaye[125] on the backside of the canvas.[126] However, it is heavily disputed if the portrayed is actually Mozart. Martin Braun analyzed and compared the painting with authentic portraits (Bologna and Salzburg family painting), and came to the conclusion that the facial elements of the sitter matched with Mozart's.[127] Despite this, it's still considered as inauthentic by several Mozart experts.[128] No references to the portrait appear in the Mozart correspondence nor external facts confirm the attribution. The painting was previously known as "Portrait of a Young Man", bringing the possibility that the sitter was attributed to be Mozart long after the artwork was made. The technique used is oil on canvas. The earliest known owner was the writer Duchess Mechtilde Christiane Maria Lichnowsky, née Countess von und zu Arco-Zinneberg.[129] She was a descendant of the Arco and Lichnowsky family, which had close ties to the Mozart family, and possibly adquired the portrait.[130] It is currently privately owned after a January 2006 auction in Salzburg.
  • Anonymous 1773-75 portrait apparently shows Mozart looking at the viewer while wearing a valuable diamond ring in the pinky, which he received as a gift from Empress Maria Theresa on October 3, 1762.[131] It is dated circa 1773-75, and no firm authorship of any artist has been established yet. Schurig initially considered it to be inauthentic,[132] but later on retracted and changed his mind, remarking the similarity of the facial features when compared with the authentic paintings.[133] Despite this, it is still considered doubtful due to a lack of research and consensus between experts. The technique used is oil on canvas, being currently owned and exhibited at the Mozarteum in Salzburg.[134]
  • Anonymous 1780-83 miniature supposedly shows Mozart.[135] It is dated circa 1780-83 and attributed to Johann Nepomuk della Croce. Its considered dubious and is not mentioned in the correspondence of the family. Schurig included it in his list of inauthentic portraits, pointing at physical differences in the ears when compared with the authentic paintings.[136] The technique used is gouache on parchment, being currently owned by the Vienna Museum.[137]
  • Grassi's 1785 portrait apparently represents Mozart as dated circa 1783-85. It is attributed to Austrian painter Josef Grassi, being supposedly lost and rediscovered in Moscow in 1988. As with most of the dubious portraits, we find no reference or mention in the family correspondence, nor other direct source from the period. The painting also has not yet been analyzed by Mozart experts, nor studied to determine its authenticity. It is known that Mozart and Grassi met in Vienna after the composer's arrival to the city.[138] The technique used is oil on canvas or cardboard. It is currently part of the collection of the Glinka Music Museum in Moscow.[139][140]
  • Edlinger 1790 portrait is, by far, the most controversial and divisive of the doubtful Mozart portraits. It was supposedly painted in Munich between October-November of 1790, created by Austrian artist Johann Georg Edlinger, during Mozart's stay in that city just a year before his death. The composer wrote in a letter that he only intended to stay for one day in the city, but was persuaded by the Elector to stay for six days to entertain his court guests, also visiting many of his friends.[141][142] The portrait was bought from a Munich art dealer in 1934, and remained in a gallery warehouse for 70 years.[143] It remained there both the sitter and the author being unknown until 1981, when Rolf Schenk identified the painting as a work of Edlinger[144] Subsequently in 1995, Wolfgang Seiller, a descendant of Edlinger, noticed a similarity of the person depicted with that of Mozart in the Bologna portrait. Four years later, Rainer Michaelis and Wolfgang Seiller confirmed this attribution based on biographical data of Mozart and Edlinger, as well as on a detailed comparison between the portraits.[145] This claim was also supported by Schenk.

    After a restoration in 2004, the portrait was exhibited to the public on January 27 of 2005, on the occasion of Mozart's 249th anniversary,[146] and the discovery quickly spread onto the news.[147][148][149] Most of these focused on the unflattering physical portrayal of Mozart. Several Mozart scholars, historians and musicologist examined the portrait and division formed between those who supported the authenticity of the painting, and those who denied it. Rudolph Angermüller and Gabriele Ramsauer questioned that the sitter was Mozart, instead being a local businessman called Joseph Anton Steiner.[150][151] This issue was adressed by Braun and Michaelis, both of whom pointed out that there were two different portraits that got mixed up.[152] Braun also realised a detailed comparison with the Bologna portrait, further solidifying his defence on the authenticity of the sitter being Mozart.[153] On the other hand, scholar Volkmar Braunbehrens pointed that, while Mozart did stay in Munich in 1790, there is no mention in his letters of any portrait being realised, nor does the name Edlinger appear.[154]

    John Jenkins is also cautious on the Mozart attribution, pointing at multiple differences with Lange's portrait as an example.[155] Volker Hagedorn was also critical of the attribution and its inconsistencies.[156] In 2006, the Mozart attribution was also confirmed by four well-known art historians at the Austrian State Gallery in Vienna: Gerbert Frodl, Sabine Grabner, Michael Krapf, and Udo Felbinger. Sculptor Wolfgang Eckert realised a bust based on the painting, and during the project he came to the conclusion that the 1789 miniature made by Dora Stock, shows the most similarity Edlinger's portrait, which also would substantiate the attribution of a Mozart image created by Edlinger.[157] The technique used is oil on canvas, being owned and exhibited by the Gemäldegalerie Museum.[158]

Inauthentic portraits of Mozart

[edit]
  • Franz Thaddäus Helbling's portrait supposedly shows Mozart looking at the viewer while playing the keyboard. It is dated circa 1765-67, painted by Austrian artist Franz Thaddäus Helbling.[159] For a long time it was considered to be authentic, being included in Schurig's list of authentic portraits of Mozart.[160] However, on further inspection, it was discovered that the sitter is actually Count Karl Maximilian Graf Firmian.[161][162] The technique used is oil on canvas, being currently owned by the Mozarteum in Salzburg.[163]
  • Dominicus van der Smissen's portrait apparently shows a young Mozart. It was allegedly painted in Holland in the spring of 1766 by German artist Dominicus van der Smissen. On the back of the portrait there is the handwritten note: "Mozart as a youth, painted by van Smissen." This is impossible because Smissen died on January 6, 1760 in Altona, which was apparently unknown to the person who put the inscription on the front.[164] It also has been attributed to a non-existant J. Vander Smissen, or even Domenicus son Jakob van Smissen (1735–1813). A false idea of ​​explaining the signature as "Devotus van Smissen" was born, because Smissen was supposed to have been a devout Mennonite.[165] The portrait itself is lacking in any fidelity to the model, specially in the face features and eye colour. The painting is probably a forgery created to capitalize on the name of the composer. The technique used is oil on canvas, currently located in the Mozarteum in Salzburg.
  • Anonymous 1767 portrait supposedly shows Mozart at the keyboard, wearing a Chinese coat and looking the viewer while pages of a score lay in his lap. It was apparently painted in 1767, being attributed either to Jean-Baptiste Perronneau or Joseph Duplessis. However, there is no evidence that connects the boy in the picture with Mozart.[166] We find no reference to the painting in the correspondence of the Mozart family, nor any clue indicate the composer being the model, giving way to the idea that the sitter was falsely attributed to be Mozart much later on. The technique used is oil on canvas, being currently owned by the Louvre Museum and exhibited at Musée de la Musique.[167]
  • Dubeck's/Jäger portrait supposedly represents Mozart. It was painted by Burchard Dubeck in 1808, seventeen years after the death of Mozart. It is also attributed to German painter Karl Jäger and dated 1870. Not much is known about the painting and the circumstances surrounding it, as no detailed investigation has been done as of now. It is widely considered to be inauthentic for the lack of fidelity to the model, specially when compared with the authentic portraits. Max Zenger included it in his list of false portraits.[168] The technique used is unknown, being currently privately owned.[169]
  • Kaulbach's 1873 painting (more known as "Mozart's Last Days") apparently shows the dying composer with his wife Constanze by his side, with the unfinished Requiem at his feet while his friends in the bacground rehearse the piece. It was painted in 1873 by German artist Hermann von Kaulbach, which was acquired by the Vienna Gallery (currently the Vienna Museum) in 1874.[170] The painting was very popular, specially after an engraving version was realized. However, the picture forms part of the fantasy portrayals of Mozart, offering a purely romantic vision of the physical appearance of the composer, and disregarding the authentic extant iconography. The technique used is oil on canvas, the original currently being exhibited at the Mozarteum in Salzburg.
[edit]
  • Anonymous Salzburg portrait (c. 1763)
    Anonymous Salzburg portrait (c. 1763)
  • Greuze's dubious portrait (c. 1763)
    Greuze's dubious portrait (c. 1763)
  • Carmontelle's family portrait (1763)
    Carmontelle's family portrait (1763)
  • Anonymous dubious miniature portrait of Wolfgang and Maria Anna (c. 1763-67)
    Anonymous dubious miniature portrait of Wolfgang and Maria Anna (c. 1763-67)
  • Helbling's inauthentic portrait (c. 1765-67)
    Helbling's inauthentic portrait (c. 1765-67)
  • Smissen's inauthentic portrait (c. 1766)
    Smissen's inauthentic portrait (c. 1766)
  • Anonymous's inauthentic portrait (c. 1767)
    Anonymous's inauthentic portrait (c. 1767)
  • Anonymous dubious portrait (c. 1767-68)
    Anonymous dubious portrait (c. 1767-68)
  • Anonymous Verona portrait (1770)
    Anonymous Verona portrait (1770)
  • Anonymous and dubious Florence portrait of Mozart with Thomas Linley and the Gavard des Pivets family (c. 1770)
    Anonymous and dubious Florence portrait of Mozart with Thomas Linley and the Gavard des Pivets family (c. 1770)
  • Delahaye's dubious portrait (c. 1772)
    Delahaye's dubious portrait (c. 1772)
  • Anonymous miniature (c. 1773)
    Anonymous miniature (c. 1773)
  • Anonymous dubious portrait (c. 1773-75)
    Anonymous dubious portrait (c. 1773-75)
  • Anonymous Bologna portrait (c. 1777)
    Anonymous Bologna portrait (c. 1777)
  • Anonymous Salzburg Family Portrait (c. 1780-81)
    Anonymous Salzburg Family Portrait (c. 1780-81)
  • Anonymous dubious miniature (c. 1780-83, mirrored)
    Anonymous dubious miniature (c. 1780-83, mirrored)
  • Lange's unfinished portrait (c. 1782-83)
    Lange's unfinished portrait (c. 1782-83)
  • Anonymous portrait (c. 1783-85)
    Anonymous portrait (c. 1783-85)
  • Grassi's dubious portrait (c. 1783-85)
    Grassi's dubious portrait (c. 1783-85)
  • Stock's silverpoint miniature (1789)
    Stock's silverpoint miniature (1789)
  • Edlinger's dubious portrait (c. 1790)
    Edlinger's dubious portrait (c. 1790)
  • Dubeck's/Jäger inauthentic portrait (c. 1808/1870)
    Dubeck's/Jäger inauthentic portrait (c. 1808/1870)
  • Krafft's posthumous portrait (1819)
    Krafft's posthumous portrait (1819)
  • Kaulbach's inauthentic portrait (c. 1873)
    Kaulbach's inauthentic portrait (c. 1873)

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ Bory, Robert (1948). La vie et l'oeuvre de Wolfgang-Amadeus Mozart par l'image.
  2. ^ Hutchings, Arthur (1976). Mozart : the man, the musician, with 320 illustrations, 170 in colour. New York: Schirmer Books. pp. 4–5 – via Internet Archive.
  3. ^ a b c d e Hutchings, Arthur (1976). Mozart : the man, the musician, with 320 illustrations, 170 in colour. New York: Schirmer Books. p. 5 – via Internet Archive.
  4. ^ Einstein, Alfred (1962). Mozart, His Character, His Work. Oxford University Press. p. 471. ISBN 978-0-19-500732-9.
  5. ^ Leisching, Julius (1926). Wolfgang A. Mozarts Bildnisse.
  6. ^ Zenger, Max (1941). Falsche Mozartbildnisse. Neues Mozart-Jahrbuch
  7. ^ Deutsch, Otto Erich (1961). Mozart and His World in Contemporary Pictures. Bärenreiter.
  8. ^ Andrés, Ramón (2006). Mozart: su vida y su obra (in Spanish). Ediciones Robinbook. p. 56. ISBN 978-84-935097-5-0.
  9. ^ Hutchings, Arthur (1976). Mozart : the man, the musician, with 320 illustrations, 170 in colour. New York: Schirmer Books. p. 6 – via Internet Archive.
  10. ^ Novello, Vincent; Novello, Mary Sabilla Hehl (1955). A Mozart Pilgrimage: Being the Travel Diaries of Vincent & Mary Novello in the Year 1829. Novello.
  11. ^ Landon, H. C. Robbins (2005-10-25). 1791: El último año de Mozart (in Spanish). Siruela. p. 72. ISBN 978-84-7844-908-8.
  12. ^ Zenger, Max (1941). Falsche Mozartbildnisse. Neues Mozart-Jahrbuch
  13. ^ "Mozart and the Keyboard Culture of His Time". Cornell University. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
  14. ^ a b Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 82
  15. ^ "Briefe und Aufzeichnungen". dme.mozarteum.at. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
  16. ^ Woodford, Peggy (1990). Mozart. Omnibus Press. p. 27. ISBN 978-0-7119-0248-0.
  17. ^ "Mozart and the Keyboard Culture of His Time". Cornell University. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
  18. ^ Solomon, Maynard (1995). Mozart: A Life. HarperCollinsPublishers. p. 44. ISBN 978-0-06-019046-0.
  19. ^ "Mozart and the Keyboard Culture of His Time". Cornell University. Retrieved 2024-12-05.
  20. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Leopold Mozart to Johann Lorenz Hagenauer dated April 1 of 1764
  21. ^ Anderson, Emily (1938). The Letters of Mozart & His Family, Volume I. Macmillan. p. 81.
  22. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Maria Anna Mozart to Breitkopf & Härtel dated November 24 of 1799
  23. ^ Nottebohm, Gustav (1880). Mozartiana; von Mozart herrührende und ihn betreffende, zum grossen Theil noch nicht veröffentlichte Schriftstücke. Wellesley College Library. Leipzig, Breikopf und Härtel. p. 137.
  24. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 83
  25. ^ Minisère de la Culture: Musée Condé - Profile of the work
  26. ^ Score at the International Music Score Library Project
  27. ^ Cornell University: Mozart's Images - Mozart in Verona
  28. ^ Sadie, Stanley (2006). Mozart: The Early Years 1756–1781. Oxford University Press, pp. 183-84
  29. ^ Cornell University: Mozart's Images - Mozart in Verona
  30. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 84
  31. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Leopold Mozart to Anna Maria Mozart dated January 7 of 1700
  32. ^ King's College London. Department of Music: Mozart & Material Culture - Portrait of Mozart: 1770, Giambettino Cignaroli and Saverio dalla Rosa
  33. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 84
  34. ^ Simonin, Laurianne (2019). A Rare Portrait of Mozart at Auction. Barnebys' Magazine
  35. ^ BBC News (2019) - Mozart childhood portrait sold for €4m at Paris auction
  36. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 85
  37. ^ King's College London. Department of Music: Mozart & Material Culture - Portrait of Mozart: c.1773 Knoller
  38. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter of Wolfgang and Leopold to Anna Maria Mozart, dated February 17 of 1770
  39. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1913). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Sein Leben und sein Werk. Vol. 1. Insel Verlag, p. 237 - note 3
  40. ^ Erich Deutsch, Otto (1961). Mozart and his World in Contemporary Pictures. Bärenreiter, p. 298
  41. ^ King's College London. Department of Music: Mozart & Material Culture - Portrait of Mozart: c.1773 Knoller
  42. ^ Keefe, Simon (2018). Mozart in Context. Cambridge University Press, pp. 64 and 68
  43. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 85
  44. ^ Amadeus Mozart, Wolfgang. Mozart's Letters, Mozart's Life: Selected Letters, translated and edited by Robert Spaethling, (W. W. Norton & Company Inc., 2000), p. 17.
  45. ^ DeLuise, Vincent (2018). Visualizing Mozart. Hektoen International
  46. ^ Sadie, Stanley (2006). Mozart: The Early Years 1756–1781. Oxford University Press, pp. 210-11
  47. ^ King's College London. Department of Music: Mozart & Material Culture - Bologna
  48. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1913). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Sein Leben und sein Werk. Vol. 1. Insel Verlag, p. 368f
  49. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter of Leopold Mozart to Padre Martini, December 22 of 1777
  50. ^ Keefe, Simon (2018). Mozart in Context. Cambridge University Press, p. 65
  51. ^ Museo internazionale e biblioteca della musica. 2) Un Martini per Mozart - Profile of the painting in the Museum
  52. ^ Google Arts & Culture: Profile of the Copy
  53. ^ Solomon, Maynard (1995). Mozart: A Life. HarperCollins Publishers, p. 181
  54. ^ Cornell University: Mozart's Images - Family Portrait
  55. ^ Keefe, Simon (2018). Mozart in Context. Cambridge University Press, p. 62
  56. ^ Dieter, George (1994). Ist Johann Nopomuk della Croce der Maler des grossen Mozartschen Familienbildes?, Mozart-Jahrbuch, pp. 75-76
  57. ^ Cornell University: Mozart's Images - Family Portrait
  58. ^ King's College London. Department of Music: Mozart & Material Culture - Portrait of the Mozart Family, 1779-1780, Della Croce (attr.)
  59. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Wolfgang to Leopold dated November 13 of 1780
  60. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Leopold to Wolfgang dated November 20 of 1780
  61. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Leopold to Wolfgang dated December 15 of 1780
  62. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Leopold and Maria Anna to Wolfgang dated December 30 of 1780
  63. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Leopold to Wolfgang dated January 8 of 1781
  64. ^ DeLuise, Vincent (2018). Visualizing Mozart. Hektoen International, Notes on Table 1
  65. ^ Novello, Vincent and Mary (1955). A Mozart Pilgrimage: Being the Travel Diaries of Vincent & Mary Novello in the Year 1829.. Novello Editions, p. 89
  66. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 86-87
  67. ^ Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press, p. 213
  68. ^ Keefe, Simon (2018). Mozart in Context. Cambridge University Press, pp. 68 and 75
  69. ^ Lorenz, Michael (2012). Joseph Lange's Mozart Portrait. Academia.edu
  70. ^ Lorenz, Michael (2012). Joseph Lange's Mozart Portrait. Academia.edu
  71. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 87
  72. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Wolfgang to Leopold dated April 3 of 1783
  73. ^ Solomon, Maynard (1995). Mozart: A Life. HarperCollins Publishers, pp. 275 and 329
  74. ^ Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press, p. 213
  75. ^ Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press, p. 262
  76. ^ Lorenz, Michael (2012). Joseph Lange's Mozart Portrait. Academia.edu
  77. ^ Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press, p. 241
  78. ^ Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press, pp. 538
  79. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 87
  80. ^ Cornell University: Mozart's Images - Mozart at the Pianoforte
  81. ^ MNAHA Collections - Brief description of Joseph Hickel
  82. ^ Eisen, Cliff (2009). Mozart in Italy and the Enigma of a Collection: Newly-Discovered Portraits and Artifacts, p. 10
  83. ^ Los Angeles Times (2008) - Portrait may be of Mozart
  84. ^ El País (2008) - Un Mozart menos romántico by Patricia Tubella
  85. ^ The Telegraph (2008) - New Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart portrait found by Stephen Adams
  86. ^ Braun, Martin (2006). Technical and archival evidence binding W.A. Mozart to the portrait "Man in Red Coat"
  87. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Wolfgang to Martha Elisabeth, Baroness von Waldstätten, dated September 28 of 1782
  88. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Wolfgang to Martha Elisabeth, Baroness von Waldstätten, dated October 2 of 1782
  89. ^ Braun, Martin (2005). Hagenauer Mozart: A new portrait of W.A.Mozart from the mid-1780s
  90. ^ Keefe, Simon (2018). Mozart in Context. Cambridge University Press, p. 69
  91. ^ Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press, pp. 339-40, 346, 562
  92. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1913). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Sein Leben und sein Werk. Vol. 2. Insel Verlag, pp. 189 and 363
  93. ^ Eisen, Cliff (2009). Mozart in Italy and the Enigma of a Collection: Newly-Discovered Portraits and Artifacts, p. 19
  94. ^ King's College London. Department of Music: Mozart & Material Culture - Portrait of Mozart: 1789, Stock
  95. ^ Keefe, Simon (2018). Mozart in Context. Cambridge University Press, p. 64
  96. ^ Neumayr, Eva (2019). Maria Anna Mozart: Facetten einer Künstlerin. Hollitzer, pp. 143-202
  97. ^ Prague Post (2019) - Looking for Mozart: The Mozart Portrait by Barbara Krafft by Elizabeth Jane Timms
  98. ^ Eisen, Cliff (2009). Mozart in Italy and the Enigma of a Collection: Newly-Discovered Portraits and Artifacts, p. 18
  99. ^ Bauer-Detusch (1962) Mozart. Briefe und Aufzeichnungen Vol. 4. Bärenreiter, pp. 455-56
  100. ^ Andrés, Ramón (2006). Mozart: Su Vida y su Obra. Swing, pp. 60-61
  101. ^ Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press.
  102. ^ Deutsch, Otto Erich (1965). Mozart: A Documentary Biography. Stanford University Press, pp. 527-33
  103. ^ Grosspietsch, Christoph (2013). Mozart-Bilder, Bilder Mozarts: ein Porträt zwischen Wunsch und Wirklichkeit. Verlag Anton Pustet
  104. ^ Erich Deutsch, Otto (1961). Mozart and his World in Contemporary Pictures. Bärenreiter
  105. ^ Braun, Martin (2006d) The Greuze Mozart - rediscovery of a portrait painting
  106. ^ Skinner, William (1933). The Belle Skinner Collection of Old Musical Instruments at Holyoke, Massachusetts. No. 24: "Portrait of Mozart", pp. 71-74
  107. ^ Zenger, Max (1941). Falsche Mozartbildnisse. Neues Mozart-Jahrbuch, p. 219
  108. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die gefälschten und untergeschobenen Mozart-Bildnisse O. Laube, p. 92
  109. ^ Erich Deutsch, Otto (1961). Mozart and his World in Contemporary Pictures. Bärenreiter
  110. ^ Braun, Martin (2006d) The Greuze Mozart - rediscovery of a portrait painting
  111. ^ Yale University Art Gallery ID: 63804
  112. ^ Nationalmuseum (2021) - Two portraits of women by miniaturist Alphen to the collections of Nationalmuseum
  113. ^ Eisen, Cliff (2009). Mozart in Italy and the Enigma of a Collection: Newly-Discovered Portraits and Artifacts, pp. 12-13
  114. ^ Bauer-Detusch (1962) Mozart. Briefe und Aufzeichnungen Vol. 1. Bärenreiter, pp. 110, 227 and 451
  115. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die gefälschten und untergeschobenen Mozart-Bildnisse O. Laube, p. 93
  116. ^ Eisen, Cliff (2009). Mozart in Italy and the Enigma of a Collection: Newly-Discovered Portraits and Artifacts, p. 13
  117. ^ Eisen, Cliff (2009). Mozart in Italy and the Enigma of a Collection: Newly-Discovered Portraits and Artifacts, p. 12
  118. ^ King's College London. Department of Music: Mozart & Material Culture - Hagenauer, Johann Lorenz (1712-1792)
  119. ^ Eisen, Cliff (2009). Mozart in Italy and the Enigma of a Collection: Newly-Discovered Portraits and Artifacts, p. 12
  120. ^ Sadie, Stanley (2006). Mozart: The Early Years 1756–1781. Oxford University Press, p. 39
  121. ^ King's College London. Department of Music: Mozart & Material Culture - Florence
  122. ^ Gutman, Robert W. (1999). Mozart: A Cultural Biography. Harcourt Brace, pp. 268–69
  123. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Leopold and Wolfgang to Anna Maria Mozart, dated April 21 of 1770
  124. ^ Christie's Profile and Essay (in French) on the portrait for the auction
  125. ^ Neil Jeffares, Dictionary of pastellists before 1800 (Online Edition)
  126. ^ Braun, Martin (2007). The Delahaye Mozart: rediscovery of a portrait of the 16-year-old composer
  127. ^ Martin Braun. The Delahaye Mozart: rediscovery of a portrait of the 16-year-old composer
  128. ^ DeLuise, Vincent (2018). Visualizing Mozart. Hektoen International
  129. ^ Salzburger Nachrichten, January 20, 1971
  130. ^ Eisen, Cliff, and Keefe, Simon P. (2006) The Cambridge Mozart Encyclopedia. Cambridge University Press
  131. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 85
  132. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1913). Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Sein Leben und sein Werk. Vol. 2. Insel Verlag, p. 358
  133. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, p. 85
  134. ^ The World of the Habsburgs: Wolfgang Amadé Mozart with the diamond ring
  135. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die gefälschten und untergeschobenen Mozart-Bildnisse O. Laube, p. 96
  136. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die gefälschten und untergeschobenen Mozart-Bildnisse O. Laube, p. 96
  137. ^ Profile of the work in the museum catalogue
  138. ^ Keefe, Simon (2018). Mozart in Context. Cambridge University Press, p 66
  139. ^ Photo12 Photography Agency - Profile of the painting
  140. ^ Bridgeman Images. Profile of the painting
  141. ^ Anderson, Emily (1985). The Letters of Mozart and His Family, Macmillan, p. 947
  142. ^ Mozart Letters and Documents (Online Edition) - Letter from Wolfgang to Constanze dated November 2 of 1790
  143. ^ The Irish Times (2005) - Last known portrait of Mozart found in gallery warehouse by Derek Scally
  144. ^ Schenk, Rolf (1981). Der Porträtmaler Johann Georg Edlinger. Monographie und Werkskatalog, Uni-Druck, München.
  145. ^ Braun, Martin (2005). The last portrait of W.A. Mozart: A biometrical statistical comparison
  146. ^ BBC News - Gallery discovers Mozart portrait
  147. ^ The Telegraph (2005): 'Lost' portrait of Mozart reveals bloated result of years of drinking and womanising by Bojan Pancevski
  148. ^ The Guardian (2005): Last known portrait of Mozart identified by Ben Aris
  149. ^ BBC News: Gallery discovers Mozart portrait
  150. ^ Bauer, Richard (2005). Der "Berliner Mozart" - Notwendiger Widerspruch gegen eine Weltsensation. Acta Mozartiana.
  151. ^ Ramsauer, Gabriele (2005). Anmerkungen zum angeblichen "Mozart-Portrait" von Johann Georg Edlinger in der Berliner Gemäldegalerie
  152. ^ Martin Braun and Rainer Michaelis (2006) "Edlinger Mozart" and "Edlinger Steiner" are two different portrait paintings: Conclusive empirical evidence
  153. ^ Martin Braun. The last portrait of W.A. Mozart: A biometrical statistical comparison
  154. ^ Braunbehrens V. Die Presse, Vienna 13 January 2005
  155. ^ Jenkins John (2006). Mozart—portrait and myth. J R Soc Med. 2006 Jun;99(6):288-91. doi: 10.1177/014107680609900614. PMID: 16738370; PMCID: PMC1472719.
  156. ^ Hagedorn, Volker (2005). "Ist es Mozart oder nicht?", Die Zeit
  157. ^ Wolfgang Eckert (2006), Über die Gestalt/Ein Werkbericht, St. Märgen: Design Concepts Verlag, ISBN 3-9807059-5-1
  158. ^ Museum Digital Database - Profile of the portrait
  159. ^ Neil Jeffares, Dictionary of pastellists before 1800 (Online Edition)
  160. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die Bildnisse W.A. Mozarts 1762–1791 O. Laube, pp. 84-85
  161. ^ DeLuise, Vincent (2018). Visualizing Mozart. Hektoen International
  162. ^ Cornell University: Mozart's Images Imagined - Count Karl Firmian
  163. ^ German Digital Library - Profile of the portrait
  164. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die gefälschten und untergeschobenen Mozart-Bildnisse O. Laube, p. 93
  165. ^ Schurig, Arthur (1920). Leopold Mozart: Reiseaufzeichnungen 1763–1771 - Die gefälschten und untergeschobenen Mozart-Bildnisse O. Laube, p. 93
  166. ^ Cornell University: Mozart's Images Imagined - Anonymous Boy at the Keyboard
  167. ^ Profile of the work in the Louvre database
  168. ^ Zenger, Max (1941). Falsche Mozartbildnisse. Neues Mozart-Jahrbuch, p. 219
  169. ^ Bridgeman Images - A posthumous portrait of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart by Burchard Dubeck
  170. ^ Meyers Großes Konversations-Lexikon
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