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'{{short description|Capital of the Kurdistan Region, Iraq}} {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2017}} {{Use British English|date=November 2017}} {{Infobox settlement | native_name = {{Lang|ar|ھەولێر}} | nickname = The City of Citadel and Minaret<br /><small>([[Sorani|Kurdish]]: شاری قەڵا و منارە)</small><ref>{{cite web |title=ھەولێر |url=http://chawykurd.com/details.aspx?=hewal&jmare=271&Jor=65&Jor2=4 |website=chawykurd.com |publisher=چاوی کورد |access-date=2 December 2020}}</ref> | motto = | image_skyline = {{Photomontage | photo1a = Hewler-Kurdistan.jpg | photo2a = Mudhafaria Minaret (evening).jpg | photo2b = Shenglbana.jpg | photo3a = A traditional Kurdish house interior, Kurdish Textile and Cultural Museum, Citadel of Erbil.jpg | photo3b = Citadel of Hewlêr (Erbil), Iraqi Kurdistan.jpg | photo4a = Chaldean Catholic Cathedral of Saint Joseph 2005 (Ankawa, Erbil, Iraq).jpg | photo4b = Machko.jpg | photo5a = | spacing = 2 | size = 280 | foot_montage = Top-bottom, R-L:{{br}} [[Downtown Erbil]] {{br}} [[Mudhafaria Minaret]] • Nature in Erbil {{br}} [[Kurdish Textile Museum|Textile Museum]] • [[Citadel of Erbil]] {{br}} [[Cathedral of Saint Joseph, Ankawa|Cathedral of Saint Joseph]] • View outside Erbil citadel }} | flag_size = | seal_size = | image_shield = | shield_size = | image_map = | mapsize = | map_caption = Location of Erbil within the Kurdistan Region | pushpin_map = Iraqi Kurdistan#Iraq | pushpin_label = Erbil | pushpin_label_position = top | pushpin_mapsize = 270px | pushpin_map_caption = Location of Erbil within the Kurdistan Region##Location of Erbil within Iraq | pushpin_relief = 1 | coordinates = {{coord|36.191188|N|44.009189|E|region:IQ|display=inline,title}} | seat_type = | seat = | subdivision_type = Country | subdivision_name = {{flag|Iraq}} | subdivision_type1 = Autonomous region | subdivision_name1 = {{flagcountry|Kurdistan Region}} | subdivision_type2 = [[Governorates of Iraq|Governorate]] | subdivision_name2 = [[Erbil Governorate|Erbil]] | government_type = | leader_title = [[Mayor]] | leader_name = [[Omed Khoshnaw]] | leader_title1 = | leader_name1 = | established_title = | established_date = | established_title2 = <!-- Incorporated (town) --> | established_date2 = | area_magnitude = | unit_pref = <!--Enter: Imperial, if Imperial (metric) is desired--> | area_footnotes = | area_total_km2 = 115 | area_land_km2 = 113 | area_water_km2 = 2 | area_total_sq_mi = | area_land_sq_mi = | area_water_sq_mi = | area_water_percent = | area_urban_km2 = | area_urban_sq_mi = | area_metro_km2 = | area_metro_sq_mi = | population_as_of = 2021 estimate | population_footnotes = | population_demonym = Hawleri | population_note = | population_total = 1,200,000<ref name=population>{{cite web|title=Iraq|url=http://www.citypopulation.de/Iraq.html|website=CITY POPULATION|access-date=5 November 2020}}</ref> | population_density_km2 = {{round|10434.78|-0}} | population_density_sq_mi = | population_metro = | population_density_metro_km2 = | population_density_metro_sq_mi = | population_urban = | population_density_urban_km2 = | population_density_urban_sq_mi = | elevation_footnotes = <!--for references: use <ref> </ref> tags--> | elevation_m = 390 | elevation_ft = | postal_code_type = Postal code | postal_code = 44001 | area_code = 066 | timezone = [[UTC+03:00#Arabia Standard Time|AST]] | utc_offset = +3 | timezone_DST = | utc_offset_DST = | blank_name = | blank_info = | blank1_name = | blank1_info = Erbil international airport | website = [https://www.hawlergov.org/app/en HawlerGov.org] | name = | settlement_type = [[List of cities in Iraq|City]] }} '''Erbil''', also called '''Hawler''' ({{lang-ku|ھەولێر ,Hewlêr}}<ref>{{cite news |title=Hewlêr dixwaze Bexda paşekeftiya mûçeyan bide |url=https://www.rudaw.net/kurmanci/kurdistan/160920198 |access-date=28 December 2019 |language=ku}}</ref> {{lang-ar|أربيل|Arbīl}},<ref>{{cite news|title=أربيل|language=ar|work=Aljazeera|url=https://www.aljazeera.net/encyclopedia/citiesandregions/2015/5/21/أربيل|access-date=28 December 2019}}</ref> {{lang-syr|ܐܲܪܒܹܝܠ}},<ref>{{Cite web|title=Search Entry|url=https://www.assyrianlanguages.org/sureth/dosearch.php?searchkey=16848&language=id|access-date=2021-05-26|website=www.assyrianlanguages.org}}</ref> or ''Arbel'')<ref>{{cite book |last1=Khan |first1=Geoffrey |title=A Grammar of Neo-Aramaic: The Dialect of the Jews of Arbel |date=1999 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-30504-5 |page=2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0rS9CwAAQBAJ |language=en|quote=There are a number of variant forms of the name Arbel. The form Arbel, which is used throughout this book, is the Neo-Aramaic form of the name. The Arabic-speaking Jews of the town refer to it as Arbīl or Arwīl. In Classical Arabic sources it is known as Irbīl. The Kurds call it Hawler, which appears to have developed from the form Arbel by a series of metatheses of consonants. The name appears to be of non-Semitic origin. It is first found in cuneiform texts dating to the third millennium B.C., where it usually has the form Urbilum.}}</ref> and known in ancient history as '''Arbela''', is the capital and most populated city in the [[Kurdistan Region]] of [[Iraq]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_yVxDwAAQBAJ&q=rudaw.net+kurdistan&pg=PT54|title=Federalism, Secession, and International Recognition Regime: Iraqi Kurdistan|last=Danilovich|first=Alex|date=2018-10-12|publisher=Routledge|isbn=9780429827655|language=en}}</ref> There is no current census of the city and official population statistics are not available, its population is estimated to be around 1,200,000.{{r|population}} Human settlement at Erbil may be dated back to the fifth millennium BC.<ref name="Novice">{{cite journal|last1=Novice|first1=Karel|title=Research of the Arbil Citadel, Iraq, First Season|journal=Památky Archaeological|date=2008|issue=XCIX|pages=259–302}}</ref> At the heart of the city is the ancient [[Citadel of Erbil]] and [[Mudhafaria Minaret]]. The earliest historical reference to the region dates to the [[Third Dynasty of Ur]] of [[Sumer]], when King [[Shulgi]] mentioned the city of Urbilum. The city was later conquered by the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]].<ref name=villard>{{harvnb|Villard|2001}}</ref><ref name='Hamblin'>{{Cite book|last=Hamblin|first=William J.|author-link=William J. Hamblin|title=Warfare in the Ancient Near East to 1600 BC|publisher=[[Routledge]]|year=2006|page=111|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=en9tzr1-VM4C|isbn=0-415-25589-9}}</ref> Erbil became an integral part of the kingdom of [[Assyria]] by the 21st century BC through to the end of the seventh century BC, after it was captured by the [[Gutians]], and it was known in Assyrian annals variously as ''Urbilim'', ''Arbela'' and ''Arba-ilu''. Subsequent to this, it was part of the geopolitical province of Assyria under several empires in turn, including the [[Median Empire]], the [[Achaemenid Empire]] ([[Achaemenid Assyria]]), [[Macedonian Empire]], [[Seleucid Empire]], [[Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)|Armenian Empire]], [[Parthian Empire]], [[Assyria (Roman province)|Roman Assyria]] and [[Sasanian Empire]], as well as being the capital of the tributary state of [[Adiabene]] between the mid-second century BC and early second century AD. Following the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], it no longer remained a unitary region, and during the [[Middle Ages]], the city came to be ruled by the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk]] and [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] empires.<ref>Georges Roux – Ancient Iraq</ref> Erbil's archaeological museum houses a large collection of [[ancient Near East|pre-Islamic]] artefacts, particularly the [[art of Mesopotamia]], and is a center for archaeological projects in the area.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> The city was designated as Arab Tourism Capital 2014 by the Arab Council of Tourism.<ref>[http://cabinet.gov.krd/a/d.aspx?l=12&a=45887 Erbil named 2014 Arab Tourism Capital] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708071630/http://cabinet.gov.krd/a/d.aspx?l=12&a=45887 |date=8 July 2015 }}. Retrieved 30 January 2014</ref><ref>[http://rudaw.net/english/opinion/23122013 "Erbil: Kurdish City, Arab Capital"], Rudaw. Retrieved 30 January 2014</ref> In July 2014, the Citadel of Arbil was inscribed as a [[World Heritage Site]]. The city is predominantly [[Kurds|Kurdish]] and has a [[Iraqi Turkmen|Turkmen]] minority.<ref>[http://www.institutkurde.org/en/info/the-kurdish-population-1232551004 The Kurdish Population] by the [[Kurdish Institute of Paris]], 2017 estimate.</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Iraqi Turkmen |url=https://minorityrights.org/minorities/turkmen/ |access-date=17 October 2020 |website=Minority Rights Group International}}</ref><ref>[http://cosit.gov.iq/ar/ Central Statistics Agency - Home Page]. Archived from [https://web.archive.org/web/20170716115359/http://www.cosit.gov.iq/ the original] on July 16th 2017. on the [[Wayback Machine]] website.</ref> ==Etymology== Erbil—the name most used internationally for the ancient city—is often referred to by the phonetic equivalents of Arbil or Erbil, as well as Arbela. The origin of the name can be traced back to [[Sumerian language|Sumerian]] writings as early as 2000 BC referring to Arbilum, Orbelum or Urbilum (𒌨𒉈𒈝𒆠, ''ur-bi₂-lum^ki''). It is believed to be composed from the Sumerian roots '[[Ur]]' (town) and '[[Sumerian language|Bela]]' (high), presumably on the basis that it is located in the upper regions, beyond the lower deltas of the [[Tigris]]. There are traces of early settled existence in the Erbil region as far back as the twenty-third century BC, but probably the first major population expansion took place when Cyaxares (625 - 585 BC), the first King of Media, settled some of the sagarthian tribes in what is today Erbil and Kirkuk. Neighbors to the Parthians in north eastern Iran, these early Iranian tribes were nomadic pastoralists, reputed to use the lasso as their principal weapon.<ref name="abebooks.co.uk">{{Cite web|title=9781906768188: Kurdistan - a Nation Emerges - AbeBooks - Jonathan Fryer: 1906768188|url=https://www.abebooks.co.uk/9781906768188/Kurdistan-Nation-Emerges-Jonathan-Fryer-1906768188/plp|access-date=2021-01-22|website=www.abebooks.co.uk|language=en-GB}}</ref> The city's ancient name, known in the classical era as Arbela ([[Greek language|Greek]]: ''Ἄρβηλα''; translit. ''Arbēla''), can be traced back to [[Old Persian]] ''Arbairā'' and ultimately [[Ancient Assyrian language|Assyrian]] ''Arbailu''.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia | title = ARBELA | last = Hansman | first = J. F. | author-link = | url = https://iranicaonline.org/articles/arbela-assyrian-arbailu-old | editor-last = | editor-first = | editor-link = | encyclopedia = Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. II, Fasc. 3 | pages = 277–278 | location = | publisher = | year = 1986 | isbn = }}</ref><ref>{{EI2|last=Sourdel|first=D.|title=Irbil|url=https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/encyclopaedia-of-islam-2/irbil-SIM_3589?s.num=0&s.f.s2_parent=s.f.book.encyclopaedia-of-islam-2&s.q=irbil|volume=4}}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia | last =Kessler | first =Karlheinz | date = 2006| title = Arbela | encyclopedia = Brill's New Pauly | publisher = Brill Online | editor-last1 = Salazar | editor-first1 = Christine F. | editor-last2 = Landfester | editor-first2 = Manfred | editor-last3 = Gentry | editor-first3 = Francis G. | url =https://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/*-e131650}}</ref> ==History== {{Further|Timeline of Erbil}} [[File:Siège d'Irbil 1258-1259.jpeg|thumb|left|Siege of Erbil by the [[Ilkhanid]] Mongols in 1258–59 depicted in the ''[[Jami' al-tawarikh]]'' by [[Rashid-al-Din Hamadani]] Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Département des Manuscrits, Division Orientale]] [[File:Citadel of Hewlêr (Erbil), Iraqi Kurdistan.jpg|thumbnail|[[Citadel of Erbil]], declared [[World Heritage Site]] by [[UNESCO]] in 2014<ref>{{Cite web |last=Centre |first=UNESCO World Heritage |title=Erbil Citadel |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1437/ |access-date=2022-04-13 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en}}</ref>]] [[File:Chaldean Catholic Cathedral of Saint Joseph 2005 (Ankawa, Erbil, Iraq).jpg|thumbnail|[[Chaldean Catholic Church|Chaldean Catholic]] [[St. Joseph's Cathedral, Ankawa|Cathedral of Saint Joseph in Ankawa]], a suburb of Erbil]] ===Ancient history=== The region in which Erbil lies was largely under [[Sumer]]ian domination from c. 3000 BC, until the rise of the [[Akkadian Empire]] (2335–2154 BC) which united all of the Akkadian Semites and Sumerians of [[Mesopotamia]] under one rule. Today the [[Assyrian people]], a Syriac-speaking community who [[Assyrian continuity|are the descendants of Akkadian speakers]], are a minority in northern Iraq, northeastern Syria, southeastern Turkey and northwestern Iran. Their population is estimated to be 3.3 million.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Statistics |title=UNPO: Assyria |url=http://unpo.org/members/7859 |website=unpo.org |language=en}}</ref> The first mention of Erbil in literary sources comes from the archives of the [[East Semitic]]-speaking kingdom of [[Ebla]]. They record two journeys to Erbil (''Irbilum'') by a messenger from Ebla around 2300 BFC. [[Erridupizir]], king of the [[language isolate]] speaking kingdom of [[Gutium]], captured the city in 2150 BC.<ref>[http://www.erbilcitadel.org/arbil/index.php?option=com_k2&view=itemlist&layout=category&task=category&id=116&Itemid=696 Timeline] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140814010854/http://www.erbilcitadel.org/arbil/index.php?option=com_k2&view=itemlist&layout=category&task=category&id=116&Itemid=696 |date=14 August 2014 }} ErbilCitadel.orq</ref> The [[Neo-Sumerian]] ruler of [[Ur]], [[Amar-Sin]], sacked ''Urbilum'' in his second year, c. 1975 BC.<ref name=Hamblin/> Erbil was an integral part of [[Assyria]] from around 2050 BC, becoming a relatively important city during the [[Old Assyrian period|Old Assyrian Empire]] (1975–1750 BC), [[Middle Assyrian Empire]] (1365–1050 BC) and the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (935–605 BC), until the last of these empires fell between 612 and 599 BC. However, it remained part of Assyria under Persian, Greek, Parthian, Roman and Sassanid rule until the first half of the seventh century AD. Under the [[Medes]], [[Cyaxares]] might have settled a number of people from the [[Iranian peoples|ancient Iranian]] tribe of [[Sagartians]] in the Assyrian cities of Arbela and [[Arrapha]] (modern [[Kirkuk]]), probably as a reward for their help in the capture of [[Nineveh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/asagarta-sagartia-asagartiya-sagartian-old-persian-elamite-as-s-kar-ti-ia-babylonian-kursa-ga-ar-ta-a-a-greek-s|title=ASAGARTA (Sagartia) – Encyclopaedia Iranica|last=electricpulp.com|work=iranicaonline.org|access-date=14 September 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161218114044/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/asagarta-sagartia-asagartiya-sagartian-old-persian-elamite-as-s-kar-ti-ia-babylonian-kursa-ga-ar-ta-a-a-greek-s|archive-date=18 December 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> According to Classical authors, the Persian emperor [[Cyrus the Great]] occupied Assyria in 547 BC and established it as an [[Achaemenid]] military protectorate state (or satrapy) called in Old Persian ''[[Achaemenid Assyria|Aθurā]] ([[Athura]])'', with [[Babylon]] as the capital.<ref>[[Ehsan Yarshater|Yarshater, Ehsan]] (1993). The Cambridge History of Iran, Volume 3. [[Cambridge University Press]]. p. 482. {{ISBN|978-0-521-20092-9}}. <q>Of the four residences of the Achaemenids named by [[Herodotus]]—[[Ecbatana]], [[Pasargadae]] or [[Persepolis]], [[Susa]] and [[Babylon]]—the last [situated in Iraq] was maintained as their most important capital, the fixed winter quarters, the central office of bureaucracy, exchanged only in the heat of summer for some cool spot in the highlands. Under the [[Seleucid Empire|Seleucids]] and the [[Parthian Empire|Parthians]] the site of the Mesopotamian capital moved slightly to the north on the [[Tigris]]—to [[Seleucia]] and [[Ctesiphon]]. It is indeed symbolic that these new foundations were built from the bricks of ancient [[Babylon]], just as later [[Baghdad]], a little further upstream, was built out of the ruins of the [[Sasanian Empire|Sassanian]] double city of [[Al-Mada'in|Seleucia-Ctesiphon]].</q></ref> The [[Battle of Gaugamela]], in which [[Alexander the Great]] defeated [[Darius III of Persia]], took place in 331 BC approximately {{convert|100|km}} west of Erbil according to [[Urbano Monti]]'s world map.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Composite: Tavola 1-60. (Map of the World) (Re-projected in Plate Carree or Geographic, Marinus of Tyre, Ptolemy) - David Rumsey Historical Map Collection|url=https://www.davidrumsey.com/luna/servlet/workspace/handleMediaPlayer?lunaMediaId=RUMSEY~8~1~303667~90074316|access-date=2022-02-19|website=www.davidrumsey.com}}</ref> After the battle, Darius managed to flee to the city. (Somewhat inaccurately, the confrontation is sometimes known as the "Battle of Arbela".) Subsequently, Arbela was part of Alexander's Empire. After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC, Arbela became part of the Hellenistic [[Seleucid Empire]]. Erbil became part of the region disputed between Rome and Persia under the [[Sasanids]]. The ancient [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]]-[[Riphath]]ean<ref name=":0">In the [[Targum]] to [[Jeremiah]] li. 27, [[Urartu|Ararat]], [[Mannaeans|Minni]], and [[Ashkenaz]] are paraphrased by Kordu, Harmini, and Hadayab, i.e., [[Corduene]], [[Armenia]], and Adiabene; while in [[Ezekiel]] xxvii. 23 [[Harran]], Caneh, and Eden are interpreted by the [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] translator as "Harwan, Nisibis, and Adiabene."</ref><ref name=":1">“‘'''The descendants of Gomer: Ashkenaz, Riphath, and Togarmah''' (Genesis 10:3)’: Asia, Adiabene, and Germania. Rabbi Berechya said: ‘Germanica’.” <nowiki>https://www.sefaria.org/Bereishit_Rabbah.37.1?ven=Sefaria_Community_Translation&with=all&lang=en</nowiki></ref> kingdom of [[Adiabene]] (the Greek form of the Assyrian ''Ḥadyab'') had its centre at Erbil, and the town and kingdom are known in Jewish history for the conversion of the royal family to Judaism.<ref name=lissner>[http://www.khazaria.com/adiabene/lissner1.html Adiabene, Jewish Kingdom of Mesopotamia] {{webarchive|url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090712112109/http%3A//www.khazaria.com/adiabene/lissner1.html |date=12 July 2009 }}, Jonah Gabriel Lissner</ref> During the Parthian era to early Sasanian era, Erbil became the capital of the [[Ashkenazi Jews|Ashkenazi]]-[[Riphath]]ean<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> state of [[Adiabene]]. Its populace then gradually converted from the [[ancient Mesopotamian religion]] between the first and fourth centuries to [[Christianity]], with [[Pkidha]] traditionally becoming its first bishop around 104 AD. The ancient Mesopotamian religion did not die out entirely in the region until the tenth century AD.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/arbela_02_text.htm |title=HISTORY OF THE CHURCH OF ADIABENE UNDER THE PARTHIANS AND THE SASSANIDS |author= MŠIHA-ZKHA |publisher=Tertullian.org }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Neusner|first=Jacob|title=A history of the Jews in Babylonia, Volume 2|year=1969|publisher=Brill Archive|page=354}}</ref> The [[Adiabene (East Syriac ecclesiastical province)]] in Arbela ([[Syriac language|Syriac]]: {{lang|syc|ܐܪܒܝܠ}} ''Arbel'') became a centre of eastern [[Syriac Christianity]] until late in the Middle Ages.<ref name=":2">{{cite book|last=British Institute of Persian Studies|title=Iran, Volumes 19–21|year=1981|publisher=the University of Michigan|pages=15, 17|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rNdtAAAAMAAJ&q=adiabene}}</ref> ===Medieval history=== As many of the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] who had converted to [[Christianity]] adopted Biblical (including Jewish) names, most of the early bishops had [[Eastern Aramaic languages|Eastern Aramaic]] or Jewish/Biblical names, which does not suggest that many of the early Christians in this city were converts from [[Judaism]].<ref>Gillman, Ian and Hans-Joachim Klimkeit. ''Christians in Asia before 1500''. (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 1999) p. 33</ref> It served as the seat of a [[Metropolitan bishop|Metropolitan]] of the [[Assyrian Church of the East]]. From the city's Christian period come many church fathers and well-known authors in [[Aramaic]]. Following the [[Muslim conquest of Persia]], the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] province of Naxwardašīragān and later [[Garamig ud Nodardashiragan]],<ref>D. Sellwood, [http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/adiabene “ADIABENE,”] Encyclopædia Iranica, I/5, pp. 456-459</ref> of which Erbil made part of, was dissolved, and from the mid seventh century AD the region saw a gradual influx of [[Muslim]] peoples, predominantly [[Arabs]], [[Kurds]] and [[Turkic peoples]]. The most notable Kurdish tribe in the region were the [[Hadhabani (tribe)|Hadhabani]], of which several individuals also acted as governors for the city from the late tenth century until the 12th century when it was conquered by the [[Zengid dynasty|Zengids]] and its governorship given to the Turkic Begtegenids, of whom the most notable was [[Gökböri]], who retained the city during the [[Ayyubid dynasty|Ayyubid]] era.<ref>V. Minorsky. Studies in Caucasian History III, Prehistory of Saladin. Cambridge University Press. 208 pp. 1953.</ref><ref>Nováček, K., Amin, N., & Melčák, M. (2013). A Medieval City Within Assyrian Walls: The Continuity of the Town of Arbīl in Northern Mesopotamia. Iraq, 75, 1-42. {{doi|10.1017/S0021088900000401}}</ref> Yaqut al-Hamawi further describes Erbil as being mostly Kurdish-populated in the 13th century.<ref>B. James. Le « territoire tribal des Kurdes » et l’aire iraqienne (xe-xiiie siècles): Esquisse des recompositions spatiales. Revue des Mondes Musulmans et de la Méditerranée, 2007. P. 101-126.</ref> When the Mongols [[Mongol Empire#Middle East|invaded]] the Near East in the 13th century, they attacked Arbil for the first time in 1237. They plundered the lower town but had to retreat before an approaching Caliphate army and had to put off the capture of the citadel.<ref>{{harvnb|Woods|1977|pp=49–50}}</ref>{{Broken footnote|date=February 2020}} After the [[Siege of Baghdad (1258)|fall of Baghdad]] to [[Hulagu Khan|Hülegü]] and the Mongols in 1258, the last Begtegenid ruler surrendered to the Mongols, claiming the Kurdish garrison of the city would follow suit; they refused this however, therefore the Mongols returned to Arbil and were able to capture the citadel after a siege lasting six months.<ref name=novacek261>{{harvnb|Nováček|Chabr|Filipský|Janiček|2008|p=261}}</ref><ref>J. von Hammer-Purgstall. 1842. Geschichte der Ilchane, das ist der Mongolen in Persien, Volume 1. P. 159-161.</ref> Hülegü then appointed a [[Assyrian people|Christian Assyrian]] governor to the town, and the [[Syriac Orthodox Church]] was allowed to build a church. As time passed, sustained persecutions of Christians, Jews and Buddhists throughout the [[Ilkhanate]] began in earnest in 1295 under the rule of [[Oïrat]] amir [[Nawrūz (Mongol emir)|Nauruz]], which affected the indigenous Christian Assyrians greatly.<ref>Grousset, p. 379</ref> This manifested early on in the reign of the [[Ilkhan]] [[Ghazan]]. In 1297, after Ghazan had felt strong enough to overcome Nauruz's influence, he put a stop to the persecutions. During the reign of the Ilkhan [[Öljeitü]], the [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] inhabitants retreated to the citadel to escape persecution. In the Spring of 1310, the [[Malik|Malek]] (governor) of the region attempted to seize it from them with the help of the Kurds. Despite the Turkic bishop [[Yahballaha III|Mar Yahballaha]]'s best efforts to avert the impending doom, the citadel was at last taken after a siege by Ilkhanate troops and Kurdish tribesmen on 1 July 1310, and all the defenders were massacred, including many of the Assyrian inhabitants of the lower town.<ref name=sourdel>{{harvnb|Sourdel|2010}}</ref><ref>Grousset, p. 383</ref> However, the city's Assyrian population remained numerically significant until the destruction of the city by the forces of [[Timur]] in 1397.<ref>Edwin Munsell Bliss, ''Turkey and the Armenian Atrocities'', (Chicago 1896) p. 153</ref> In the [[Middle Ages]], Erbil was ruled successively by the [[Umayyad dynasty|Umayyads]], the [[Abbasid Caliphate|Abbasids]], the [[Buyid dynasty|Buwayhids]], the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuks]] and then the Turkmen Begtegīnid Emirs of Erbil (1131–1232), most notably [[Gökböri]], one of [[Saladin]]'s leading generals; they were in turn followed by the [[Ilkhanids]], the [[Jalayirids]], the [[Kara Koyunlu]], the [[Timurids]] and the [[Ak Koyunlu]]. Erbil was the birthplace of the famous 12th and 13th century Kurdish historians and writers [[Ibn Khallikan]] and [[Ibn al-Mustawfi]]. After [[Battle of Chaldiran]] in 1514, Erbil came under [[Soran Emirate|Soran emirate]] In 18th century [[Baban|Baban Emirate]] took the city but it was retaken by [[Soran Emirate|Soran]] ruler [[Emir|Mir]] Muhammed Kor in 1822 The Soran emirate continued ruling over Erbil until it was taken by the [[Ottoman Turks|Ottomans]] in 1851. Erbil became a part of the [[Mosul vilayet]] in [[Ottoman Empire]] until [[World War I]], when the Ottomans and their Kurdish and Turkmen allies were defeated by the [[British Empire]]. === The Medes === [[Medes|The Medes]], and with them the [[Sagartians|Sagarthians]], were to revolt against [[Darius II|Darius I]] of Persia in 522 BC, but this revolt was firmly put down by the army which Darius sent out under the leadership of General Takhmaspada the following year. The events are depicted in the Behistun Inscription which stands today in the mountains of Iran's [[Kermanshah Province|Kermanshah province]]. Ever the buffer zone between the two great empires of [[Byzantium]] and [[Persia]], the plains of 10&nbsp;km to the west of Erbil were to witness the Battle of [[Battle of Gaugamela|Gaugemela]] between [[Alexander the Great]] and [[Darius III]] of Persia in 331 BC. Vanquished, Darius managed to flee to Erbil, which is why the battle is still sometimes referred to - rather inaccurately - as the Battle of Erbil. Erbil went on to be the seat of rule of the Adiabene Kingdom in the first century AD, largely located to the north west in the region of modern-day [[Diyarbakır|Diyarbakir]] in Turkey. It is remembered in Jewish traditions for the notable conversion of its Queen, [[Helena of Adiabene]], to Judaism before she moved on to Jerusalem. Early Christianity was also to flourish in Erbil with a bishop established in the town as early as AD 100 with a community of followers thought to be converts from Judaism.<ref name=":2" /> ===Modern history=== Erbil lies on the plain beneath the mountains, but for the most part, the inhabitants of [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] dwell up above in the rugged and rocky terrain that is the traditional habitat of the Kurds since time immemorial.<ref name="abebooks.co.uk"/>[[File:Postcard of the city of Erbil, 1900.jpg|alt=A postcard showing the city of Erbil in 1900|thumb|A postcard showing the city of Erbil in 1900]] The modern town of Erbil stands on a [[Tell (archaeology)|tell]] topped by an Ottoman [[Fortification|fort]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], Erbil became a major trading center on the route between [[Baghdad]] and [[Mosul]], a role which it still plays today with important road links to the outside world. [[File:Erbil mail square.JPG|250px|thumb|left|Erbil Main Square]] Erbil is also home to a large population of refugees due to ongoing [[Syrian civil war|conflicts in Syria]]. In 2020, it was estimated that 450,000 refugees had settled in the Erbil metropolitan area since 2003, with many of them expected to remain.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Interview with Nihad Salim Qoja: "Iranian hegemony in Iraq is very strong" - Qantara.de|url=https://en.qantara.de/content/interview-with-nihad-salim-qoja-iranian-hegemony-in-iraq-is-very-strong|access-date=2020-07-18|website=Qantara.de - Dialogue with the Islamic World|language=en}}</ref> The parliament of the [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] was established in Erbil in 1970 after negotiations between the Iraqi government and the [[Kurdistan Democratic Party]] (KDP) led by [[Mustafa Barzani]], but was effectively controlled by [[Saddam Hussein]] until the Kurdish uprising at the end of the 1991 [[Gulf War]]. The legislature ceased to function effectively in the mid-1990s when fighting broke out between the two main Kurdish factions, the Kurdistan Democratic Party and the [[Patriotic Union of Kurdistan]] (PUK). The city was captured by the KDP in 1996 with the assistance of the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. The PUK then established an alternative Kurdish government in [[Sulaimaniyah]]. KDP claimed that in March 1996, PUK asked for Iran's help to fight KDP. Considering this as a foreign attack on Iraq's soil, the KDP asked Saddam Hussein for help. The Kurdish Parliament in Erbil reconvened after a peace agreement was signed between the Kurdish parties in 1997, but had no real power. The Kurdish government in Erbil had control only in the western and northern parts of the autonomous region. During the [[2003 invasion of Iraq]], a [[United States]] special forces task force was headquartered just outside Erbil. The city was the scene of celebrations on 10 April 2003 after the fall of the [[Ba'athism|Ba'ath]] regime. [[File:Clock of Erbil.jpg|thumb|Erbil Clock Tower]] During the [[Occupation of Iraq (2003–2011)|U.S. occupation of Iraq]], sporadic attacks hit Erbil. Parallel bomb attacks against [[Eid al-Adha|Eid]] celebrations [[2004 Erbil bombings|killed 117 people in February 2004]].<ref name=arab-2-feb-2004>{{cite news |last1=Al-Nahr|first1=Naseer |title=Twin Bombings Kill 56 in Irbil |url=http://www.arabnews.com/node/243882 |access-date=11 May 2015 |work=Arabnews.com |date=2 February 2004}}</ref> Responsibility was claimed by [[Ansar al-Sunnah]].<ref name="arab-2-feb-2004" /> A [[2005 Erbil bombing|suicide bombing in May 2005]] killed 60 civilians and injured 150 more outside a police recruiting centre.<ref name=nyt-5-may-2005>{{cite news |last1=Jaff|first1=Warzer |last2=Oppel Jr.|first2=Richard A. |title=60 Kurds Killed by Suicide Bomb in Northern Iraq |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/05/05/international/middleeast/05iraq.html?pagewanted=all |access-date=11 May 2015 |work=The New York Times|date=5 May 2005}}</ref> The [[Erbil International Airport]] opened in the city in 2005. In September 2013, a [[2013 Erbil bombings|quintuple car bombing]] killed 6 people. In 2015, the [[Assyrian Church of the East]] moved its seat from [[Chicago]] to Erbil. In February 2021, a [[2021 Erbil rocket attacks|series of missiles hit the city]] killing 2 and injuring 8 people. [[2022 Erbil rocket attacks|Further missile attacks]] took place in March 2022. ==Transportation== [[Erbil International Airport]] is one of Iraq's busiest airports and it is near the city. Services include direct flights to many domestic destinations such as Baghdad international airport. There are international flights from Erbil to many countries; such as the Netherlands, Germany, Saudi Arabia, Austria, Turkey, Jordan and many more flights elsewhere around the world. There are occasionally seasonal flights from Erbil international airport. Erbil International Airport was briefly closed to international commercial flights in September 2017 by the Iraqi government in retaliation for the Kurdish independence vote but reopened in March 2018.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Blockade by Iraq |title=Iraqi govt enforces international flight ban in Kurdistan region |url=http://www.france24.com/en/20170929-iraq-foreigners-ban-international-flights-airports-kurdistan-independence-referendum-yes-vo |work=France 24 |date=29 September 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=International Flight Return |title=Erbil International Airport |url=https://erbilairport.com/INFO06/F_INFO06_01_02.aspx?articleId=436&page=1 |website=erbilairport.com}}</ref> Another important form of transportation between Erbil and the surrounding areas is by bus. Among others, bus services offer connections to Turkey and Iran. A new bus terminal was opened in 2014.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/25042014|title=Erbil's New Bus Terminal a Boon for Travelers|work=Rudaw|language=en|date=4 April 2019|access-date=19 March 2019}}</ref> Erbil has a system of five ring roads encirling the city.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/050220173|title=Erbil's 5th ring road completed - the 120 Meter highway|work=Rudaw|date=2 May 2017|access-date=19 March 2019|language=en}}</ref> ==Climate== Erbil has a [[hot-summer Mediterranean climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Csa''), with long, extremely hot summers and mild winters. Summer months are extremely dry, with little to no precipitation occurring between June and September. Winters are usually wet and humid, with January being the wettest month.<ref name="Climate-Data.org"/> {{Weather box |width = auto |metric first = Yes |single line = Yes |location = Erbil |Jan high C = 12.4 |Feb high C = 14.2 |Mar high C = 18.1 |Apr high C = 24.0 |May high C = 31.5 |Jun high C = 38.1 |Jul high C = 42.0 |Aug high C = 41.9 |Sep high C = 37.9 |Oct high C = 30.7 |Nov high C = 21.2 |Dec high C = 14.4 |Jan mean C = 7.4 |Feb mean C = 8.9 |Mar mean C = 12.4 |Apr mean C = 17.5 |May mean C = 24.1 |Jun mean C = 29.7 |Jul mean C = 33.4 |Aug mean C = 33.1 |Sep mean C = 29.0 |Oct mean C = 22.6 |Nov mean C = 15.0 |Dec mean C = 9.1 |Jan low C = 2.4 |Feb low C = 3.6 |Mar low C = 6.7 |Apr low C = 11.1 |May low C = 16.7 |Jun low C = 21.4 |Jul low C = 24.9 |Aug low C = 24.4 |Sep low C = 20.1 |Oct low C = 14.5 |Nov low C = 8.9 |Dec low C = 3.9 |rain colour = green |Jan rain mm=111 |Feb rain mm=97 |Mar rain mm=89 |Apr rain mm=69 |May rain mm=26 |Jun rain mm=0 |Jul rain mm=0 |Aug rain mm=0 |Sep rain mm=0 |Oct rain mm=12 |Nov rain mm=56 |Dec rain mm=80 |Jan rain days=9 |Feb rain days=9 |Mar rain days=10 |Apr rain days=9 |May rain days=4 |Jun rain days=1 |Jul rain days=0 |Aug rain days=0 |Sep rain days=1 |Oct rain days=3 |Nov rain days=6 |Dec rain days=10 |Jan snow days=1 |Feb snow days=0 |Mar snow days=0 |Apr snow days=0 |May snow days=0 |Jun snow days=0 |Jul snow days=0 |Aug snow days=0 |Sep snow days=0 |Oct snow days=0 |Nov snow days=0 |Dec snow days=0 |Jan humidity=75 |Feb humidity=70 |Mar humidity=65 |Apr humidity=59 |May humidity=42 |Jun humidity=29 |Jul humidity=25 |Aug humidity=28 |Sep humidity=31 |Oct humidity=44 |Nov humidity=61 |Dec humidity=76 |source 1= ''Climate-Data.org'',<ref name="Climate-Data.org">{{cite web|title=Climate: Arbil – Climate graph, Temperature graph, Climate table|url=http://en.climate-data.org/location/4976/|publisher=Climate-Data.org|access-date=13 August 2013}}</ref> ''My Forecast'' for records, humidity, snow and precipitation days<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.myforecast.com/bin/climate.m?city=66293&metric=true |title=Irbil, Iraq Climate |publisher=My Forecast |access-date=14 July 2013}}</ref> |source 2= ''What's the Weather Like.org'',<ref>{{cite web|title=Erbil climate info|url=http://www.whatstheweatherlike.org/iraq/erbil.htm|publisher=What's the Weather Like.org|access-date=14 July 2013}}</ref> ''Erbilia''<ref>{{cite web|title=Erbil Weather Forecast and Climate Information|url=http://www.erbilia.com/erbil-info/weather/|publisher=Erbilia|access-date=14 July 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130709000508/http://www.erbilia.com/erbil-info/weather/|archive-date=9 July 2013|df=dmy-all}}</ref> }} ==Culture== ===Citadel of Erbil=== [[File:One of the halls of the Erbil Civilization Museum displaying Mesopotamian artifacts from the Urartian, Hurrian, and Hatra periods.jpg|thumb|[[Erbil Civilization Museum]] contains artifacts from the [[Assyria|Assyrian]], [[Urartu|Urartian]], [[Hurrians|Hurrian]], and [[Hatra]] periods.]] The [[Citadel of Erbil]] is a tell or occupied mound in the historical heart of Erbil, rising between {{convert|25|and|32|m}} from the surrounding plain. The buildings on top of the tell stretch over a roughly oval area of {{convert|430|x|340|m}} occupying {{convert|102,000|sqm}}. It has been claimed that the site is the oldest continuously inhabited town in the world.<ref name='UN'>{{cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5479/|title=Erbil Citadel |publisher=[[UNESCO]]|access-date=30 August 2010}}</ref> The earliest evidence for occupation of the citadel mound dates to the fifth millennium BC and possibly earlier. It appears for the first time in historical sources during the [[Third Dynasty of Ur|Ur III]] period and gained particular importance during the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire]] (tenth to seventh centuries BC) period. West of the citadel at Ary Kon quarter, a chamber tomb dating to the Neo-Assyrian Empire period has been excavated.<ref name="ReferenceA"/> During the [[Sasanian Empire|Sasanian]] period and the [[Abbasid Caliphate]], Erbil was an important centre for [[Syriac Christianity]] and the [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]] in general. After the [[Mongol Empire|Mongols]] captured the citadel in 1258, Erbil's importance began to decline. The main gate is guarded by an immense statue of a Kurd reading: “the house of the citadel behind him are built into stony ground of the mound and look down on the streets and tarmacked roads that circle them.” [[File:Statue of Ibn al-Mustawfi.png|thumb|Statue of [[Ibn al-Mustawfi]]]] During the 20th century, the urban structure was significantly modified, as a result of which a number of houses and public buildings were destroyed. In 2007, the High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR) was established to oversee the [[building restoration|restoration]] of the citadel. In the same year, all inhabitants, except one family, were evicted from the citadel as part of a large restoration project. Since then, [[archaeology|archaeological]] research and restoration works have been carried out at and around the tell by various international teams and in co-operation with local specialists, and many areas remain off-limits to visitors due to the danger of unstable walls and infrastructure. The government plans to have 50 families live in the citadel once it is renovated. The only religious structure that currently survives in the citadel is the [[Mulla Effendi]] mosque. When it was fully occupied, the citadel was divided in three districts or ''[[Mahallah|mahallas]]'': from east to west the Serai, the Takya and the Topkhana. The Serai was occupied by notable families; the Takya district was named after the homes of [[dervish]]es, which are called ''takyas''; and the Topkhana district housed craftsmen and farmers. Other sights to visit in the citadel include the bathing rooms (''[[Turkish bath|hammam]]'') built in 1775 located near the mosque and the Textile Museum.<ref>'Erbil Citadel' Brochure, High Commission for Erbil Citadel Revitalization (HCECR). www.erbilcitadel.org</ref> Erbil citadel has been inscribed on the World Heritage List on 21 June 2014 . ===Other sights=== [[File:IMG-20210718-WA0007.jpg|thumb|Illusion Museum Erbil]] * The covered Erbil [[Qaysari Bazaars]], lying below the main entrance to the citadel and stocking mainly household goods and tools. * The {{convert|36|m|ft|0|adj=mid|abbr=off|-high}} [[Mudhafaria Minaret]], situated in Minaret Park several blocks from the citadel, dates back to the late 12th century AD and the Governor of Erbil, in the reign of [[Saladin]], Muzaffar Al-Din Abu Sa’eed Al-Kawkaboori ([[Gökböri]]), who had entered in the obedience of Salahuddin without war and married his sister. It has an octagonal base decorated with two tiers of niches, which is separated from the main shaft by a small balcony, also decorated. Another historical minaret with turquoise glazed tiles is nearby. * [[Sami Rahman Park|Sami Abdul Rahman Park]] * The Mound of Qalich Agha lies within the grounds of the Museum of Civilization, {{convert|1|km|mi}} from the citadel. An excavation in 1996 found tools from the [[Tell Halaf|Halaf]], [[Ubaid period|Ubaid]] and [[Uruk period]]s.<ref name="ReferenceA">'Directorate Antiquities of Erbil's Guide' Brochure produced by General Directorate of Antiquities, KRG, Ministry of Tourism</ref> * [[Illusion Museum Erbil]] * [[Kurdish Textile Museum]] ===Sports=== [[File:Franso Hariri Stadium Iraq.jpg|thumb|[[Franso Hariri Stadium]]]] The local major football team is Erbil Soccer Club which plays its football matches at [[Franso Hariri Stadium]] (named after the assassinated Assyrian politician, former governor of Erbil city [[Franso Hariri]]) which is based in the south part of central Erbil. Erbil Football Team Wins 3 Iraqi nation league and reached the AFC Final twice, but lost both times. == Notable People == * [[Aziz Abdullah Ahmed]], Kurdish Judge * [[Ali Hama Saleh]], Iraqi [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] politician of the [[Movement for Change]] (Gorran).Currently he is member of [[Kurdistan Region Parliament|Kurdistan parliament]]. * [[Falah Mustafa Bakir]], [[Kurdistan Region|Kurdistan Region, Iraq]] serving as Senior Foreign Policy Advisor to President [[Nechirvan Barzani]] with a ministerial rank. * [[Basimah Yusuf Butrus]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] politician who was Minister of Science and Technology in the [[Iraqi Transitional Government]] from May 2005 until May 2006. She was then the only Christian Minister in Iraq. * [[İhsan Doğramacı]],  [[Turkish people|Turkish]] [[paediatrician]], [[entrepreneur]], [[philanthropist]], [[educationalist]]<nowiki/>and college administrator of [[Iraqi Turkmen]]<nowiki/>descent born in today's [[Erbil]], [[Kurdistan Region]], [[Iraq]] then [[Ottoman Empire]]. * [[Mulla Effendi]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish-Iraqi]] [[Muslim]] Scholar, [[Islamic philosopher]], [[Ulema|scholar]], [[astronomer]], [[politician]], and a prominent Iraqi personality from [[Arbil]], [[Iraq]]. * [[Sinan Erbil]], [[Iraqi Turkmen|Turkmen]] singer * [[Esad Erbili]], of the [[Naqshbandi|Naqshi]]-[[Khalidi]] [[Sufi order]] * [[Gökböri]], general of Sultan [[Saladin]] (Ṣalāḥ ad-Dīn Yūsuf ibn Ayyūb), and ruler of [[Erbil]]. * [[Ali Hariri]], [[Kurds|Kurdish]] [[Poets|poet]] who wrote in [[Kurmanji]] and considered a pioneer in classical Kurdish [[Sufism|Sufi]] literature and a founder of the Kurdish literary tradition. * [[Fawzi Hariri]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] politician * [[Franso Hariri]] , Politician * [[Ibn Khallikan]], [[Shafi'i]] Islamic scholar who compiled the celebrated [[Encyclopedic dictionary|biographical encyclopedia]] of [[Muslim]] scholars and important men in Muslim history * [[Miran Khesro]], [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] [[Football (soccer)|football]] player who currently plays as a [[Midfielder (association football)|midfielder]] for [[Sohar SC|Sohar]] * [[Omed Khoshnaw]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] politician of the [[Kurdistan Democratic Party]] (K.D.P). Khoshnaw is the current [[Erbil]] governor. * [[Birzo Majeed]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] politician of the [[Movement for Change]](Gorran). * [[Sarkis Aghajan Mamendo]], [[Iraq|Iraqi]] [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]]<nowiki/>politician who was appointed Minister for Finance and Economy in the cabinet of [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] on 7 May 2006. * [[Abdul Khaliq Masood]], former [[President (corporate title)|president]] of the [[Iraq Football Association]]. * [[Nawzad Hadi Mawlood]], former [[Erbil Province|Governor of Erbil Province]]. * [[Mohammed Yaseen Mohammed]], [[Olympic weightlifting|weightlifter]]. He competed at the [[1980 Summer Olympics]] and the [[1984 Summer Olympics]]. * [[Sarhang Muhsin]], an [[Iraq|Iraqi]][[Football (soccer)|football]] [[Goalkeeper (association football)|Goalkeeper]] of [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] ethnicity. He played for the [[Iraq national football team]] and plays for [[Amanat Baghdad]] in [[Iraq]]. * [[Herro Mustafa]],  American [[diplomat]]<nowiki/>who has served as the [[U.S. Ambassador to Bulgaria]] since October 2019. She carries the rank of Counselor, the lowest of four ranks in the [[Senior Foreign Service]]. * [[Noreldin Waisy]], [[Iraqi Kurdistan|Kurdish]] political analyst and journalist. He helped found the Kurdish media broadcasting outlets [[Rudaw Media Network|Rudaw]] and [[Kurdistan 24]]. * [[Abdulla Pashew]], contemporary [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] poet * [[Farhad Pirbal]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] writer, philosopher, singer, poet, painter and critic * [[Kamal Qadir]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] [[human rights]] activist with [[Austria|Austrian]] citizenship * [[Ali Hama Saleh]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] politician of the [[Movement for Change]] (Gorran).Currently he is member of [[Kurdistan Region Parliament|Kurdistan parliament]]. * [[Blend Saleh]], [[Iraqi Kurdistan|Kurdish]] pop singer * [[Idris Hadi Salih]], the Head of Board of Trustees and the President of [[Tishk International University]], Erbil, Iraq * [[Firsat Sofi]], [[Kurdish people|Kurdish]] politician * [[Ahmed Uthman]], Kurdish politician from [[Arbil|Erbil]] who played an important role in shaping events and the direction of public administration in [[Iraqi Kurdistan]] in the first half of the twentieth century. * [[Babaker Zebari]], Kurdish former KDP politician and retired [[General]] in the [[Iraqi Army]]. Zebari was chief of staff of the Iraqi army from 2004 till 2015 ==See also== {{Commons category|Arbil}} * [[List of largest cities of Iraq|List of largest cities in Iraq]] * [[Kurdistan]] * [[Ankawa]] – a suburb * [[Erbil Governorate]] * [[Erbil International Airport]] – capital's airport in Kurdistan ==References== {{reflist}} ==Sources== * {{Citation |last1=Sourdel |first1=D. |editor1-first=P. |editor1-last=Bearman |editor2-first=Th. |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor3-first=C.E. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor4-first=E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor5-first=W.P. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor3-link=Clifford Edmund Bosworth |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |year=2010 |publisher=Brill Online |chapter=Irbil |oclc=624382576}} * [[René Grousset|Grousset, René]], ''The Empire of the Steppes'', (Translated from the French by Naomi Walford), New Brunswick: [[Rutgers University Press]] (1970) ==External links== {{wikivoyage|Erbil}} * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150401011526/http://hawler.gov.krd/ku/ Hawler Governorate] * [http://www.ierbil.com/ Erbil] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121028193449/http://www.ierbil.com/ |date=28 October 2012 }} – Portal for international visitors * [https://www.livius.org/ap-ark/arbela/arbela.html Livius.org: Arbela] * [http://www.erbilia.com/ Erbil Information Guide] * [https://web.archive.org/web/20150223182930/http://studentreader.com/hawler-erbil/ Hawler/Erbil visitor's guide] * [http://phototravels.smrkovsky.name/erbil Erbil seen through camera lens] {{Iraqi Kurdistan}} {{Authority control}} [[Category:Erbil| ]] [[Category:6th-millennium BC establishments]] [[Category:Adiabene]] [[Category:Ancient Assyrian cities]] [[Category:Assyrian communities in Iraq]] [[Category:Assyrian geography]] [[Category:Cities in Iraqi Kurdistan]] [[Category:District capitals of Iraq]] [[Category:Erbil Governorate]] [[Category:History of Upper Mesopotamia]] [[Category:Kurdish settlements in Iraq]] [[Category:Populated places established in the 6th millennium BC]] [[Category:Turkmen communities in Iraq]]'