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'{{Contains special characters|IPA}} A '''lexical set''' is a group of [[word]]s that all fall under a single category based on some shared [[phonology|phonological]] feature. <ref></ref>== Wells Standard Lexical Sets for English == The Standard Lexical Sets for English introduced by [[John C. Wells]] in ''Accents of English'' are in wide usage. Wells defined each lexical set on the basis of the pronunciation of words in two reference accents, which he calls RP and GenAm.{{sfnp|Wells|1982}} * "RP" refers to [[Received Pronunciation]], the traditionally prestigious accent in [[England]].{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=117}} * "GenAm" refers to an accent of the [[General American]] type, which is associated with a geographically "neutral" or widespread sound system throughout the US.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=118}} It is "a relatively conservative variety, in which ''don'' is pronounced differently from ''dawn'' and ''hoarse'' differently from ''horse''".{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=118}} Wells classifies English words into 24 lexical sets on the basis of the pronunciation of the vowel of their stressed syllable in the two reference accents. Each lexical set is named after a representative keyword.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=123}} Wells also describes three sets of words based on word-final unstressed vowels, which, though not included in the standard 24 lexical sets (the final three sets listed in the chart below) "have indexical and diagnostic value in distinguishing accents".{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=165}} {|class="wikitable sortable" |+ Lexical sets, as defined in {{harvp|Wells|1982|pp=xviii–ix, 120–2, 166–7}} |- ! Keyword !! RP !! GenAm !!class="unsortable"| Example words |- |{{sc2|KIT}} || {{hs|i}} {{IPA|ɪ}} || {{hs|i}} {{IPA|ɪ}} || ship, sick, bridge, milk, myth, busy |- |{{sc2|DRESS}} || {{hs|e}} {{IPA|e}} || {{hs|e}} {{IPA|ɛ}} || step, neck, edge, shelf, friend, ready |- |{{sc2|TRAP}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|æ}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|æ}} || tap, back, badge, scalp, hand, cancel |- |{{sc2|LOT}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɒ}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|ɑ}} || stop, sock, dodge, romp, possible, quality |- |{{sc2|STRUT}} || {{hs|u}} {{IPA|ʌ}} || {{hs|u}} {{IPA|ʌ}} || cup, suck, budge, pulse, trunk, blood |- |{{sc2|FOOT}} || {{hs|u}} {{IPA|ʊ}} || {{hs|u}} {{IPA|ʊ}} || put, bush, full, good, look, wolf |- |{{sc2|BATH}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|æ}} || staff, brass, ask, dance, sample, calf |- |{{sc2|CLOTH}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɒ}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɔ}} || cough, broth, cross, long, Boston |- |{{sc2|NURSE}} || {{hs|e}} {{IPA|ɜː}} || {{hs|e}} {{IPA|ɜr}} || hurt, lurk, urge, burst, jerk, term |- |{{sc2|FLEECE}} || {{hs|i}} {{IPA|iː}} || {{hs|i}} {{IPA|i}} || creep, speak, leave, feel, key, people |- |{{sc2|FACE}} || {{hs|e}} {{IPA|eɪ}} || {{hs|e}} {{IPA|eɪ}} || tape, cake, raid, veil, steak, day |- |{{sc2|PALM}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|ɑ}} || psalm, father, bra, spa, lager |- |{{sc2|THOUGHT}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɔː}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɔ}} || taught, sauce, hawk, jaw, broad |- |{{sc2|GOAT}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|əʊ}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|o}}<!-- as appears in Wells (1982) --> || soap, joke, home, know, so, roll |- |{{sc2|GOOSE}} || {{hs|u}} {{IPA|uː}} || {{hs|u}} {{IPA|u}} || loop, shoot, tomb, mute, huge, view |- |{{sc2|PRICE}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|aɪ}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|aɪ}} || ripe, write, arrive, high, try, buy |- |{{sc2|CHOICE}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɔɪ}} || adroit, noise, join, toy, royal |- |{{sc2|MOUTH}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|aʊ}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|aʊ}} || out, house, loud, count, crowd, cow |- |{{sc2|NEAR}} || {{hs|i}} {{IPA|ɪə}} || {{hs|i}} {{IPA|ɪr}} || beer, sincere, fear, beard, serum |- |{{sc2|SQUARE}} || {{hs|e}} {{IPA|ɛə}} || {{hs|e}} {{IPA|ɛr}} || care, fair, pear, where, scarce, vary |- |{{sc2|START}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|ɑː}} || {{hs|a}} {{IPA|ɑr}} || far, sharp, bark, carve, farm, heart |- |{{sc2|NORTH}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɔː}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɔr}} || for, war, short, scorch, born, warm |- |{{sc2|FORCE}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|ɔː}} || {{hs|o}} {{IPA|or}} || four, wore, sport, porch, borne, story |- |{{sc2|CURE}} || {{hs|u}} {{IPA|ʊə}} || {{hs|u}} {{IPA|ʊr}} || poor, tourist, pure, plural, jury |- | happ{{sc2|Y}} || {{hs|i}} {{IPA|ɪ}} || {{hs|i}} {{IPA|ɪ}}<!-- as appears in Wells (1982) --> || copy, scampi, taxi, sortie, committee, hockey, Chelsea |- | lett{{sc2|ER}} || {{IPA|ə}} || {{IPA|ər}} || paper, metre, calendar, stupor, succo(u)r, martyr, figure |- | comm{{sc2|A}} || {{IPA|ə}} || {{IPA|ə}} || catalpa, quota, vodka |} For example, the word ''rod'' is pronounced {{IPA|/rɒd/}} in RP and {{IPA|/rɑd/}} in GenAm. It therefore belongs in the {{sc2|LOT}} lexical set. ''Weary'' is pronounced {{IPA|/ˈwɪərɪ/}} in RP and {{IPA|/ˈwɪrɪ/}} in GenAm and thus belongs in the {{sc2|NEAR}} lexical set. Some English words do not belong to any lexical set. For example, the ''a'' in the stressed syllable of ''tomato'' is pronounced {{IPA|/ɑː/}} in RP, and {{IPA|/eɪ/}} in GenAm, a combination that is very unusual and is not covered by any of the 24 lexical sets above.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=122}} The GenAm pronunciation of words pronounced with {{IPA|/ɒ/}} before a [[velar consonant]] in RP, such as ''mock'' and ''fog'', varies between {{IPA|/ɔ/}} and {{IPA|/ɑ/}} and so the words belong to no particular lexical set.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=136}} ===Choice of the keywords=== Wells explains his choice of keywords ("kit", "fleece", etc.) as follows: <blockquote>The keywords have been chosen in such a way that clarity is maximized: whatever accent of English they are spoken in, they can hardly be mistaken for other words. Although ''fleece'' is not the commonest of words, it cannot be mistaken for a word with some other vowel; whereas ''beat'', say, if we had chosen it instead, would have been subject to the drawback that one man's pronunciation of ''beat'' may sound like another's pronunciation of ''bait'' or ''bit''.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=123}}</blockquote> Wherever possible, the keywords end in a voiceless [[alveolar consonant|alveolar]] or [[dental consonant|dental]] consonant.{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=123}} ===Usage=== The Standard Lexical Sets of Wells are widely used to discuss the [[phonology|phonological]] and [[phonetics|phonetic]] systems of different accents of English in a clear and concise manner. Although based solely on RP and GenAm, the Standard Lexical Sets have proven useful in describing many other accents of English. This is true because, in many dialects, the words in all or most of the sets are pronounced with similar or identical stressed vowels. Wells himself uses the Lexical Sets most prominently to give "tables of lexical incidence" for all the various accents he discusses in his work. For example, here is the table of lexical incidence he gives for [[Newfoundland English]]:{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=499}} {{col-begin}} {{col-break}} *{{sc2|KIT}}: {{IPA|ɪ}} *{{sc2|DRESS}}: {{IPA|ɛ}} *{{sc2|TRAP}}: {{IPA|æ}} *{{sc2|LOT}}: {{IPA|ɑ}} *{{sc2|STRUT}}: {{IPA|ɔ̈}} *{{sc2|FOOT}}: {{IPA|ʊ}} *{{sc2|BATH}}: {{IPA|æː}} *{{sc2|CLOTH}}: {{IPA|ɑː}} *{{sc2|NURSE}}: {{IPA|ɜr [ɝ:]}} {{col-break}} *{{sc2|FLEECE}}: {{IPA|iː}} *{{sc2|FACE}}: {{IPA|ɛː, ɛɪ}} *{{sc2|PALM}}: {{IPA|æ, ɑː}} *{{sc2|THOUGHT}}: {{IPA|ɑː}} *{{sc2|GOAT}}: {{IPA|ʌʊ}} *{{sc2|GOOSE}}: {{IPA|uː}} *{{sc2|PRICE}}: {{IPA|əi}} *{{sc2|CHOICE}}: {{IPA|əi}} *{{sc2|MOUTH}}: {{IPA|əu}} {{col-break}} *{{sc2|NEAR}}: {{IPA|ɛr}} *{{sc2|SQUARE}}: {{IPA|ɛr}} *{{sc2|START}}: {{IPA|ær}} *{{sc2|NORTH}}: {{IPA|ɔ̈r}} *{{sc2|FORCE}}: {{IPA|ɔ̈r}} *{{sc2|CURE}}: {{IPA|ɔ̈r}} *''happ''{{sc2|Y}}: {{IPA|[i]}} *''lett''{{sc2|ER}}: {{IPA|ər [ɚ]}} *''comm''{{sc2|A}}: {{IPA|ə}} {{col-end}} The table indicates that, for example, Newfoundland English uses the {{IPA|/ɪ/}} phoneme for words in the {{sc2|KIT}} lexical set, and that the {{sc2|NORTH}}, {{sc2|FORCE}} and {{sc2|CURE}} sets are all pronounced with the same vowel {{IPA|/ɔ̈r/}}. Note that some lexical sets, such as {{sc2|FACE}}, are given with more than one pronunciation, which indicates that not all words in the {{sc2|FACE}} lexical set are pronounced similarly (in this case, Newfoundland English has not fully undergone the [[pane–pain merger]]). {{IPA|/ɔ̈/}} is a back vowel {{IPAblink|ɔ}}; Wells uses the symbol {{angbr IPA|ɔ̈}} so that the reader does not confuse it with the {{sc2|THOUGHT}} vowel (which, in the case of many other accents, he writes with {{angbr IPA|ɔ}} or {{angbr IPA|ɔː}}).{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=498}} Wells also uses the Standard Lexical Sets to refer to "the vowel sound used for the standard lexical set in question in the accent under discussion":{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=124}} Thus, for example, in describing the Newfoundland accent, Wells writes that "{{sc2|KIT}} and {{sc2|DRESS}} are reportedly often merged as {{IPA|[ɪ]}}",{{sfnp|Wells|1982|p=500}} meaning that the stressed syllables of words in the {{sc2|KIT}} lexical set and words in the {{sc2|DRESS}} lexical set are reportedly often pronounced identically with the vowel {{IPA|[ɪ]}}. Lexical sets may also be used to describe [[:Category:Splits and mergers in English phonology|splits and mergers]]. For example, RP, along with most other non-rhotic accents, [[Rhotic and non-rhotic accents#Mergers characteristic of non-rhotic accents|pronounces words such as "father" and "farther" identically]]. This can be described more economically as the merger of the {{sc2|PALM}} and {{sc2|START}} lexical sets. Most North American accents make [[Father-bother merger#Father–bother merger|"father" rhyme with "bother"]]. This can be described as the merger of the {{sc2|PALM}} and {{sc2|LOT}} lexical sets. ===Origin=== In a 2010 blog post, Wells wrote: {{quote |text=I sometimes think that a century from now my lexical sets will be the one thing I shall be remembered for. Yet I dreamt them up over a weekend, frustrated with the incoherent mess of symbols used in such contemporary publications as [[Uriel Weinreich|Weinreich]]'s "Is a structural dialectology possible?".<ref name="blog">{{cite web |title=John Wells's phonetic blog: lexical sets |url=http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2010/02/lexical-sets.html |date=2010-02-02 |access-date=2010-04-30}}</ref>}} He also wrote that he claimed no copyright in the Standard Lexical Sets, and that everyone was "free to make whatever use of them they wish".<ref name="blog"/> ===Extensions=== Some varieties of English make distinctions in stressed vowels that are not captured by the 24 lexical sets. For example, some Irish and Scottish accents that have not undergone the [[fern–fir–fur merger]] split the {{sc2|NURSE}} lexical set into multiple subsets. For such accents, the 24 Wells lexical sets may be inadequate. Because of this, a work devoted to Irish English may split the Wells {{sc2|NURSE}} set into two subsets, a new, smaller {{sc2|NURSE}} set and a {{sc2|TERM}} set.<ref>{{cite book |title=A sound atlas of Irish English |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |first=Raymond |last=Hickey |date=2004 |ISBN=3-11-018298-X |pages=54–55 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TZK9cSYRrjMC }} </ref> Some writers on English accents have introduced a {{sc2|GOAL}} set to refer to a set of words that have the {{sc2|GOAT}} vowel in standard accents but may have a different vowel in Sheffield<ref>Stoddart, Upton and Widowson in Urban Voices, Arnold, London, 1999, page 76</ref> or in south-east London.<ref>Tollfree in Urban Voices, Arnold, London, 1999, page 165</ref> Wells has stated that he didn't include a {{sc2|GOAL}} set because this should be interpreted as an allophone of {{sc2|GOAT}} that is sensitive to the morpheme boundary, which he illustrates by comparing the London pronunciations of ''goalie'' and ''slowly''.<ref>{{cite web |title=John Wells's phonetic blog: the evidence of the vows |url=http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.co.uk/2011/05/evidence-of-vows.html |date=2011-05-03 |access-date=2014-02-17 }}</ref> {{harvcoltxt|Schneider|Burridge|Kortmann|Mesthrie|2004}}, which documents the phonologies of varieties of English around the world like {{harvcoltxt|Wells|1982}}, employs Wells Standard Lexical Sets as well as the following supplementary lexical sets, as needed to illustrate finer details of the variety in discussion: :{{sc2|GOAL}}, hors{{sc2|ES}}, {{sc2|HEAD}}, {{sc2|BIRTH}}, {{sc2|BERTH}}, {{sc2|PRIZE}}, {{sc2|AFTER}}, {{sc2|NEVER}}, {{sc2|STAY}}, {{sc2|STONE}}, {{sc2|STAND}}, {{sc2|OFF}}, {{sc2|DO}}, {{sc2|ONE}}, {{sc2|SNOW}}, {{sc2|BOAR}}, {{sc2|POWER}}, {{sc2|FIRE}}, {{sc2|EARS}}, {{sc2|TUESDAY}}, {{sc2|NEW}}, {{sc2|MARRY}}, {{sc2|MERRY}}, {{sc2|MARY}}, {{sc2|ORANGE}}, {{sc2|KITTEN}}, {{sc2|DANCE}}, {{sc2|TOMORROW}}, {{sc2|LOUD}}, {{sc2|HAND}}, {{sc2|PIN}}, {{sc2|PEN}}, {{sc2|THINK}}, {{sc2|LENGTH}}, {{sc2|GOING}}, {{sc2|POOL}}, {{sc2|PULL}}, {{sc2|FEEL}}, {{sc2|FILL}}, {{sc2|FAIL}}, {{sc2|FELL}}, {{sc2|MIRROR}}, {{sc2|NEARER}}, {{sc2|COW}}, {{sc2|STAR}}, {{sc2|FIT}}, {{sc2|CUP}}, {{sc2|PIECE}}, {{sc2|BROAD}}, {{sc2|LOOSE}}, {{sc2|EIGHT}}, met{{sc2|ER}}, {{sc2|BEER}}, treac{{sc2|LE}}, {{sc2|BARE}}, {{sc2|BACK}}, {{sc2|BED}}, paint{{sc2|E}}d, vill{{sc2|A}}ge, {{sc2|TERM}}, {{sc2|SPHERE}}, {{sc2|ZERO}}, carr{{sc2|IER}}, cord{{sc2|IAL}}, c{{sc2|U}}rious, {{sc2|TRUER}}, {{sc2|TRUANT}}, offic{{sc2|E}}s, {{sc2|A}}bout, {{sc2|IT}}, {{sc2|SIT}}, {{sc2|LAYER}}, {{sc2|BITE}}, {{sc2|BIDE}}, {{sc2|BYRE}}, {{sc2|BILE}}, {{sc2|BOUT}}, {{sc2|BOWED}}, {{sc2|BOWER}}, {{sc2|BOWEL}}, unc{{sc2|LE}}, {{sc2|DOOR}}, {{sc2|POOR}}{{sfnp|Schneider|Burridge|Kortmann|Mesthrie|2004|pp=42–3, 53–4, 101–2, 137, 187, 236, 263–4, 273, 285, 290, 294, 303–4, 340, 359, 369, 395, 410, 460, 504–5, 515, 518, 585, 761–2, 849, 880, 893, 928, 945, 947, 956, 968, 987, 993, 1006, 1024, 1038, 1050}} ==Other languages== Lexical sets have also been used to describe the pronunciation of other languages, such as [[French language|French]],<ref>{{cite book |title=Social and stylistic variation in spoken French: a comparative approach |first=Nigel |last=Armstrong |publisher=John Benjamins |year=2001 |ISBN=90-272-1839-0 |location=Amsterdam |pages=100ff |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hu5eYY_4nxcC }}</ref> [[Irish language|Irish]]<ref name="Hickey2011">{{cite book|author=Raymond Hickey|title=The Dialects of Irish: Study of a Changing Landscape|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bkk-PuUa4QQC|date=29 August 2011|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-023830-3}}</ref> and [[Scots language|Scots]].<ref name="Millar2007">{{cite book|author=Robert McColl Millar|title=Northern and insular Scots|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lwx6AAAAIAAJ|year=2007|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=978-0-7486-2316-7}}</ref> == See also == * [[Diaphoneme]] * [[Homophone]] * [[Minimal pair]] == References == {{reflist|30em}} ==Bibliography== * {{cite book |last1=Schneider |first1=Edgar W. |last2=Burridge |first2=Kate |author-link2=Kate Burridge |last3=Kortmann |first3=Bernd |last4=Mesthrie |first4=Rajend |last5=Upton |first5=Clive |author-link5=Clive Upton |year=2004 |title=A Handbook of Varieties of English |volume=Volume 1: Phonology |publisher=Mouton de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-11-017532-5 }} * {{Accents of English|hide2=y}} == External links == * Nicole Taylor (with the collaboration of Norma Mendoza-Denton [http://www.u.arizona.edu/~nmd/cv.html]), The University of Arizona, Anthropology 383, [https://archive.is/20121211181925/http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~anth383/lexicalsets.html Standard Lexical Sets], 2002 (in Archive.is)<!-- Original page was in http://www.ic.arizona.edu/~anth383/lexicalsets.html --> * University of Pennsylvania, [http://www.ling.upenn.edu/courses/Fall_2003/ling001/English.html Linguistics 001, Lecture 9: Pronunciation of English] [[Category:Phonology]] [[Category:English phonology]] [[Category:English lexical sets|*]]'