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Josephine Baker

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For the first female Director of Public Health, see Sara Josephine Baker.

Josephine Baker
Josephine Baker in her famous banana costume.
Born
Freda Josephine McDonald

(1906-06-03)3 June 1906
St. Louis, Missouri, U.S.[1][2]
Died12 April 1975(1975-04-12) (aged 68)
Paris, France
Cause of deathCerebral hemorrhage
Resting placeMonaco Cemetery[3][4]
NationalityAmerican, French
Occupation(s)Dancer, singer, actress, civil rights activist, spy
Years active1921–1975
Spouses
William Wells
​
(m. 1919⁠–⁠1920)​
William Baker
​
(m. 1921⁠–⁠1925)​
Jean Lion
​
(m. 1937⁠–⁠1938)​
Jo Bouillon
​
(m. 1947⁠–⁠1961)​
PartnerRobert Brady (1973–75)
Children12; including Jean-Claude Baker
Musical career
GenresCabaret, music hall, French pop, French jazz
InstrumentVocals
LabelsColumbia, Mercury, RCA Victor

Josephine Baker (3 June 1906 – 12 April 1975) was an American-born French dancer, singer, and actress who came to be known in various circles as the "Black Pearl," "Bronze Venus" and even the "Creole Goddess". Born Freda Josephine McDonald in St. Louis, Missouri, Josephine Baker became a citizen of France in 1937. She was fluent in both English and French.

Baker was the first black woman to star in a major motion picture, Zouzou (1934), or to become a world-famous entertainer. Baker refused to perform for segregated audiences in the United States and is noted for her contributions to the Civil Rights Movement. In 1968 she was offered unofficial leadership in the movement in the United States by Coretta Scott King, following Martin Luther King, Jr.'s assassination. Baker turned down the offer. She was also known for assisting the French Resistance during World War II,[5] and received the French military honor, the Croix de guerre and was made a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur by General Charles de Gaulle.[6]

Early life

She was born as Freda Josephine McDonald in St. Louis, Missouri,[1][2] the daughter of Carrie McDonald. Her estate identifies vaudeville drummer Eddie Carson as her natural father; Carson abandoned Baker and her mother.[7]

Carrie and Eddie had a song-and-dance act, playing wherever they could get work. When Josephine was about a year old they began to carry her onstage occasionally during their finale.

Josephine was always poorly dressed and hungry, and she played in the railroad yards of Union Station. From this she developed her street smarts.[8]

When Baker was eight, she began working as a live-in domestic for white families in St. Louis.[9] One woman abused her, burning Baker's hands when the young girl put too much soap in the laundry.[10]

In Baker’s early life she struggled with having a healthy relationship with her mother, Carrie McDonald. McDonald did not believe dance was a real form of work and scolded Josephine for not tending to her current husband, Willie Baker.[11]

Although Baker returned after traveling with gifts and money for her mother and younger sister, the turmoil of the relationship between Baker and her mother pushed Baker towards her first trip to France.[12]

Baker’s talent was ridiculed so harshly by the United States she decided not to go to her sister’s funeral in St. Louis. Instead Baker opted to send money to cover the funeral expenses but did not return.[11]

Career

Early years

Baker dropped out of school at the age of 13 and lived as a street child in the slums of St. Louis, sleeping in cardboard shelters and scavenging for food in garbage cans.[13]

Her street-corner dancing attracted attention, and she was recruited for the St. Louis Chorus vaudeville show at the age of 15. She headed to New York City during the Harlem Renaissance, performing at the Plantation Club and in the chorus of the groundbreaking and hugely successful Broadway revues Shuffle Along (1921) with Adelaide Hall[14] and The Chocolate Dandies (1924). She performed as the last dancer in a chorus line. Traditionally the dancer in this position performed in a comic manner, as if she were unable to remember the dance, until the encore, at which point she would perform it not only correctly but with additional complexity. Baker was billed at the time as "the highest-paid chorus girl in vaudeville".[15][unreliable source?]

Baker’s career began with her doing black face comedy at local clubs, this was the “entertainment” that her mother did not approve of. Black face performances landed Baker an opportunity to tour in Paris (France), which would become the place she called home until her final days.[16]

Paris and rise to fame

Arrival of Josephine Baker in The Hague in 1928

Baker sailed to Paris, France, for a new venture, and opened in La Revue Nègre on October 2, 1925, at the Théâtre des Champs-Élysées.[7][17] In Paris, she became an instant success for her erotic dancing, and for appearing practically nude on stage. After a successful tour of Europe, she broke her contract and returned to France to star at the Folies Bergère, setting the standard for her future acts.

Baker performed the 'Danse sauvage,' wearing a costume consisting of a skirt made of a string of artificial bananas. Her success coincided (1925) with the Exposition des Arts Décoratifs, which gave birth to the term "Art Deco", and also with a renewal of interest in non-western forms of art, including African. Baker represented one aspect of this fashion. In later shows in Paris, she was often accompanied on stage by her pet cheetah, Chiquita, who was adorned with a diamond collar. The cheetah frequently escaped into the orchestra pit, where it terrorized the musicians, adding another element of excitement to the show.[15][unreliable source?]

After a short while, Baker was the most successful American entertainer working in France. Ernest Hemingway called her "the most sensational woman anyone ever saw."[18][19]

In addition to being a musical star, Baker also starred in three films which found success only in Europe: the silent film Siren of the Tropics (1927), Zouzou (1934) and Princesse Tam Tam (1935). She also starred in Fausse Alerte in 1940.[20]

Josephine Baker dancing the Charleston, 1926

At this time she also scored her most successful song, "J'ai deux amours" (1931). She became a muse for contemporary authors, painters, designers and sculptors, including Langston Hughes, Ernest Hemingway, F. Scott Fitzgerald, Pablo Picasso, and Christian Dior.

At the start of her career in France, Baker met a a Sicilian former stonemason who passed himself off as a count, who persuaded her into letting him manage her.[12]Giuseppe Pepito Abatino, was not only Baker’s management, but her lover as well. The two could not marry due to Baker still being married to her second husband, Willie Baker.[11] Under the management of Giuseppe Pepito Abatino, Baker's stage and public persona, as well as her singing voice, were transformed. In 1934, she took the lead in a revival of Jacques Offenbach's opera La créole, which premiered in December of that year for a six-month run at the Théâtre Marigny on the Champs-Élysées of Paris. In preparation for her performances, she went through months of training with a vocal coach. In the words of Shirley Bassey, who has cited Baker as her primary influence, "... she went from a 'petite danseuse sauvage' with a decent voice to 'la grande diva magnifique'... I swear in all my life I have never seen, and probably never shall see again, such a spectacular singer and performer."[21]

Despite her popularity in France, Baker never attained the equivalent reputation in America. Upon a visit to the United States in 1935–36, she was met with lukewarm audiences, in part because the audience did not approve of her nudity or her singing. Her star turn in a revival of Ziegfeld Follies received a negative reception from critics. It was said that her voice was "too thin" and "dwarf-like" to feel the spacious theatre, and many audiences found French accent confusing.[22] Time magazine referred to her as a "Negro wench".[23] She returned to Europe heartbroken.[7] This contributed to Baker's becoming a legal citizen of France and giving up her US Citizenship.


Baker returned to Paris in 1937, married a Jewish Frenchman, Jean Lion, and became a French citizen.[24] They were married in the French town of Crèvecœur-le-Grand, in a wedding presided over by mayor Jammy Schmidt.

Work during World War II

In September 1939, when France declared war on Germany in response to the invasion of Poland, Baker was recruited by Deuxième Bureau, French military intelligence, as an "honorable correspondent". Baker collected what information she could about German troop locations from officials she met at parties. She specialized in gatherings at embassies and ministries, charming people as she had always done, while gathering information. Her café-society fame enabled her to rub shoulders with those in the know, from high-ranking Japanese officials to Italian bureaucrats, and to report back what she heard. She attended parties at the Italian embassy without raising suspicions and gathered information.[25]: 182–269 

When the Germans invaded France, Baker left Paris and went to the Château des Milandes, her home in the south of France. She housed friends who were eager to help the Free French effort led by Charles de Gaulle and supplied them with visas.[26] As an entertainer, Baker had an excuse for moving around Europe, visiting neutral nations such as Portugal, as well as some in South America. She carried information for transmission to England, about airfields, harbors, and German troop concentrations in the West of France. Notes were written in invisible ink on Josephine's sheet music.[25]: 232–269 

Later in 1941, she and her entourage went to the French colonies in North Africa. The stated reason was Baker's health (since she was recovering from another case of pneumonia) but the real reason was to continue helping the Resistance. From a base in Morocco, she made tours of Spain. She pinned notes with the information she gathered inside her underwear (counting on her celebrity to avoid a strip search). She befriended the Pasha of Marrakech, whose support helped her through a miscarriage (the last of several). After the miscarriage, she developed an infection so severe it required a hysterectomy. The infection spread and she developed peritonitis and then septicemia. After her recovery (which she continued to fall in and out of), she started touring to entertain British, French, and American soldiers in North Africa. The Free French had no organized entertainment network for their troops, so Baker and her friends managed for the most part on their own. They allowed no civilians and charged no admission.[25]

In Cairo, Egypt's King Farouk asked her to sing; she refused because Egypt had not recognized Free France and remained neutral. However, she offered to sing in Cairo at a celebration of honor for the ties between Free France and Egypt, and asked Farouk to preside, a subtle indication of which side his officially neutral country leaned toward.[27]

After the war, Baker received the Croix de guerre and the Rosette de la Résistance. She was made a Chevalier of the Légion d'honneur by General Charles de Gaulle.[28]

Baker’s last marriage to French composer and conductor Jo Bouillon ended around the time Baker opted to adopt her 11th child.[11] After the separation, Baker’s Chateau in France was foreclosed and she had to be physically removed from the property.

Later career

In 1949, a reinvented Baker returned in triumph to the Folies Bergere. Bolstered by recognition of her wartime heroics, Baker the performer assumed a new gravitas, unafraid to take on serious music or subject matter. The engagement was a rousing success, and reestablished Baker as one of Paris' preeminent entertainers.

In 1951 Baker was invited back to the US for a nightclub engagement in Miami. After winning a public battle over desegregating the club's audience, Baker followed up her sold-out run at the club with a national tour. Rave reviews and enthusiastic audiences accompanied her everywhere, climaxed by a parade in front of 100,000 people in Harlem in honor of her new title: NAACP's "Woman of the Year." Her future looked bright, with six months of bookings and promises of many more to come.

An incident at the Stork Club interrupted and overturned her plans. Baker criticized the club's unwritten policy of discouraging black patrons, then scolded columnist Walter Winchell, an old ally, for not rising to her defense. Winchell responded swiftly with a series of harsh public rebukes, including accusations of Communist sympathies (a serious charge at the time). The ensuing publicity resulted in the termination of Baker's work visa, forcing her to cancel all her engagements and return to France. It was almost a decade before US officials allowed her back into the country.[29]

In January 1966, Fidel Castro invited Baker to perform at the Teatro Musical de La Habana in Havana, Cuba at the 7th anniversary celebrations of his revolution. Her spectacular show in April broke attendance records. In 1968, Baker visited Yugoslavia and made appearances in Belgrade and in Skopje.

In her later career, Baker faced financial troubles. She commented, "Nobody wants me, they've forgotten me"; but family members encouraged her to continue performing. In 1973 she performed at Carnegie Hall to a standing ovation. In 1974 she appeared in a Royal Variety Performance at the London Palladium, and then at the Monacan Red Cross Gala, celebrating her 50 years in French show business. Advancing years and exhaustion began to take their toll; she sometimes had trouble remembering lyrics, and her speeches between songs tended to ramble. She still continued to captivate audiences of all ages.[25]

Civil rights activism

Josephine Baker in Havana, Cuba, 1950

Although based in France, Baker supported the American Civil Rights Movement during the 1950s. When she arrived in New York with her husband Jo, they were refused reservations at 36 hotels because she was black. She was so upset by this treatment that she wrote articles about the segregation in the United States. She also began traveling into the South. She gave a talk at Fisk University, a historically black college in Nashville, Tennessee, her subject being "France, North Africa And The Equality Of The Races In France".[25]

She refused to perform for segregated audiences in the United States, although she was offered $10,000 by a Miami club.[5] (The club eventually met her demands). Her insistence on mixed audiences helped to integrate live entertainment shows in Las Vegas, Nevada, then one of the most segregated cities in America.[15][unreliable source?] After this incident, she began receiving threatening phone calls from people claiming to be from the Ku Klux Klan but said publicly that she was not afraid of them.[25]

In 1951, Baker made charges of racism against Sherman Billingsley's Stork Club in Manhattan, where she alleged that she had been refused service.[30][31] Actress Grace Kelly, who was at the club at the time, rushed over to Baker, took her by the arm and stormed out with her entire party, vowing never to return (although she returned on 3 January 1956 with Prince Rainier of Monaco). The two women became close friends after the incident.[32]

When Baker was near bankruptcy, Kelly offered her a villa and financial assistance (Kelly by then was princess consort of Rainier III of Monaco). (However, during his work on the Stork Club book, author and New York Times reporter Ralph Blumenthal was contacted by Jean-Claude Baker, one of Josephine Baker's sons. Having read a Blumenthal-written story about Leonard Bernstein's FBI file, he indicated that he had read his mother's FBI file and, using comparison of the file to the tapes, said he thought the Stork Club incident was overblown.[33])

Baker worked with the NAACP.[5] Her reputation as a crusader grew to such an extent that the NAACP had Sunday 20 May 1951 declared Josephine Baker Day. She was presented with life membership of the NAACP by Nobel Peace Prize winner Dr. Ralph Bunche. The honor she was paid spurred her to further her crusading efforts with the "Save Willie McGee" rally after he was convicted of the 1948 beating death of a furniture shop owner in Trenton, New Jersey. As Josephine became increasingly regarded as controversial, many blacks began to shun her, fearing that her reputation would hurt their cause.[25]

In 1963, she spoke at the March on Washington at the side of Rev. Martin Luther King, Jr.[34] Baker was the only official female speaker. While wearing her Free French uniform emblazoned with her medal of the Légion d'honneur, she introduced the "Negro Women for Civil Rights."[35] Rosa Parks and Daisy Bates were among those she acknowledged, and both gave brief speeches.[36]

After King's assassination, his widow Coretta Scott King approached Baker in the Netherlands to ask if she would take her husband's place as leader of the American Civil Rights Movement. After many days of thinking it over, Baker declined, saying her children were "too young to lose their mother".[36]

Personal life

Relationships

Baker was married four times. Her first marriage was to American Pullman porter Willie Wells when she was 13 years old. The marriage was reportedly very unhappy and the couple divorced a short time later. Another short-lived marriage followed to Willie Baker in 1921; she retained Baker's last name because her career began taking off during that time, and it was the name by which she became best known. In 1925 she began an extramarital relationship with the Belgian novelist Georges Simenon.[37]

In 1937 Baker married Frenchman Jean Lion. She became a French citizen and became a permanent expatriate. She and Lion separated before he died.

She married French composer and conductor Jo Bouillon in 1947, but their union also ended in divorce. She was later involved for a time with the artist Robert Brady, but they never married.[38][39] Her adopted son Jean-Claude Baker described his mother as a bisexual, having had relationships with men and women.[40] In her later years, Baker converted to Roman Catholicism.[41]

Children

During Baker's work with the Civil Rights Movement, she began adopting children, forming a family she often referred to as "The Rainbow Tribe". Josephine wanted to prove that "children of different ethnicities and religions could still be brothers." She often took the children with her cross-country, and when they were at Château des Milandes, she arranged tours so visitors could walk the grounds and see how natural and happy the children in "The Rainbow Tribe" were.[42] Baker raised two daughters, French-born Marianne and Moroccan-born Stellina, and ten sons, Korean-born Jeannot (or Janot), Japanese-born Akio, Colombian-born Luis, Finnish-born Jari (now Jarry), French-born Jean-Claude and Noël, Israeli-born Moïse, Algerian-born Brahim, Ivorian-born Koffi, and Venezuelan-born Mara.[43][44] For some time, Baker lived with her children and an enormous staff in the château in Dordogne, France, with her fourth husband, Jo Bouillon.

Later years and death

In 1964, Josephine Baker lost her castle due to unpaid debts; after, Princess Grace offered her an apartment in Roquebrune, near Monaco.[citation needed]

Baker was back on stage at the Olympia in Paris in 1968, in Belgrade in 1973, at Carnegie Hall in 1973, at the Royal Variety Performance at the London Palladium in 1974, and at the Gala du Cirque in Paris in 1974. On 8 April 1975, Baker starred in a retrospective revue at the Bobino in Paris, Joséphine à Bobino 1975, celebrating her 50 years in show business. The revue, financed notably by Prince Rainier, Princess Grace, and Jacqueline Kennedy Onassis, opened to rave reviews. Demand for seating was such that fold-out chairs had to be added to accommodate spectators. The opening night audience included Sophia Loren, Mick Jagger, Shirley Bassey, Diana Ross, and Liza Minnelli.[45]

Four days later, Baker was found lying peacefully in her bed surrounded by newspapers with glowing reviews of her performance. She was in a coma after suffering a cerebral hemorrhage. She was taken to Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, where she died, aged 68, on 12 April 1975.[45][46] She received a full Roman Catholic[47] funeral which was held at L'Église de la Madeleine.[48][49] The only American-born woman to receive full French military honors at her funeral, Baker's funeral was the occasion of a huge procession. After a family service at Saint-Charles Church in Monte Carlo,[50] Baker was interred at Monaco's Cimetière de Monaco.[45]

Legacy

Place Joséphine Baker in the Montparnasse Quarter of Paris was named in her honor. She has also been inducted into the St. Louis Walk of Fame,[51] and on 29 March 1995, into the Hall of Famous Missourians.[52] In 2015 she was inducted into the Legacy Walk.[53] The Piscine Joséphine Baker is a swimming pool along the banks of the Seine in Paris named for her.

Writing in the on-line BBC magazine in late 2014, Darren Royston, historical dance teacher at RADA credited Baker with being the Beyonce of her day, and bringing the Charleston to Britain.[54]

Two of Baker's sons, Jean-Claude and Jarry (Jari), grew up to go into business together, running the restaurant Chez Josephine on Theatre Row, 42nd Street, New York. It celebrates Baker's life and works.[55]

Château de Milandes which she rented from 1940 before purchasing in 1947.

Château des Milandes, a castle near Sarlat in the Dordogne, was Josephine Baker's home where she raised her twelve children. It is open to the public and displays her stage outfits including her banana skirt (of which there are apparently several). It also displays many family photographs and documents as well as her Legion of Honour medal. Most rooms are open for the public to walk through including bedrooms with the cots where her children slept, a huge kitchen, and a dining room where she often entertained large groups. The bathrooms were designed in art deco style but most rooms retained the French chateau style.

Portrayals

Baker pictured in her most famous costume for the Danse banane
  • In 2006, Jérôme Savary produced a musical, A La Recherche de Josephine – New Orleans for Ever (Looking for Josephine). The story revolved around the history of jazz and Baker's career.[56][57]
  • In 1991, Baker's life story, The Josephine Baker Story, was broadcast on HBO. Lynn Whitfield portrayed Baker, and won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries or a Special—becoming the first Black actress to win the award in this category.[58]
  • In 2002, played by Karine Plantadit in Frida.[59][60]
  • Josephine Baker appears in her role as a member of the French Resistance in Johannes Mario Simmel's 1960 novel, Es Muss Nicht Immer Kaviar Sein (C'est pas toujours du caviar).[61]
  • The 2004 erotic novel Scandalous by British author Angela Campion uses Baker as its heroine and is inspired by Baker's sexual exploits and later adventures in the French Resistance. In the novel, Baker, working with a fictional black Canadian lover named Drummer Thompson, foils a plot by French fascists in 1936 Paris.[62]
  • Her influence upon and assistance with the careers of husband and wife dancers Carmen De Lavallade and Geoffrey Holder are discussed and illustrated in rare footage in the 2005 Linda Atkinson/Nick Doob documentary, Carmen and Geoffrey.[63][64]
  • Diana Ross famously portrayed Josephine Baker in both her Tony Award-winning Broadway and television show An Evening with Diana Ross. When the show was made into an NBC television special entitled The Big Event: An Evening with Diana Ross, Ross further embellished her role as Josephine. She worked for years to make a feature film of her life; to no avail. Diana considers it a "lost dream".[65]
  • In 1986, Helen Gelzer[66] portrayed Josephine on the London stage for a limited run in the musical Josephine - ‘a musical version of the life and times of Josephine Baker’ with book, lyrics and music by Michael Wild.[67] The show was produced by Josephine Baker’s longtime friend Jack Hocket in conjunction with Premier Box-Office and the musical director was Paul Maguire. Gelzer also recorded a studio cast album titled, "Josephine".
  • The italo-belge francophone singer composer Salvatore Adamo pays tribute to Josephine Baker with the song "Noël Sur Les Milandes" (album: Petit Bonheur – EMI 1970).
  • Beyoncé Knowles has portrayed Baker on various accounts throughout her career. During the 2006 Fashion Rocks show, Knowles performed "Dejá Vu" in a revised version of the Danse banane costume. In Knowles's video for "Naughty Girl", she is seen dancing in a huge champagne glass à La Baker. In I Am... Yours: An Intimate Performance at Wynn Las Vegas, Beyonce lists Baker as an influence of a section of her live show.[68]
  • In the 1997 animated film Anastasia, Baker appears with her cheetah during the musical number "Paris Holds the Key (to Your Heart)".[69][70]
  • A character clearly based on Baker (topless, wearing the famous "banana skirt") appears in the opening sequence of the 2003 animated film Les Triplettes de Belleville.[71]
  • A character loosely based on Baker is featured in an episode of Hogan's Heroes titled, "Is General Hammerschlag Burning?", which originally aired on 18 November 1967. The character, Kumasa (played by Barbara McNair), is a chanteuse based in Paris. She later reveals herself to be Carol Dukes, a high school classmate of Sergeant James Kinchloe (Ivan Dixon), on whom she had a secret crush.
  • A German submariner mimics Baker's Danse banane in the film Das Boot.[72]
  • In 2010, Keri Hilson portrayed Baker in her single "Pretty Girl Rock".[73]
  • Artist Hassan Musa depicted Baker in a series of paintings called Who needs Bananas?[74]
  • In 2011, Sonia Rolland portrayed Baker in the film Midnight in Paris.[75][76]
  • Josephine Baker was heavily featured in the 2012 book Josephine's Incredible Shoe & The Blackpearls by Peggi Eve Anderson-Randolph.[77]
  • In July 2012, Cheryl Howard opened in The Sensational Josephine Baker, written and performed by Howard and directed by Ian Streicher at the Beckett Theatre of Theatre Row on 42nd Street in New York City, just a few doors down from the restaurant "Chez Josephine", run by two of her children.[78][79]
  • In July 2013, Cush Jumbo's debut play Josephine and I premieres at the Bush Theatre, London[80] It was re-produced in New York City at The Public Theater's Joe's Pub from 27 February to 5 April 2015. <http://www.publictheater.org/en/Public-Theater-Season/Josephine-and-I/>

Film credits

See also

References

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  2. ^ a b "A – About Art Deco – Josephine Baker". Victoria and Albert Museum. Retrieved 6 March 2009.
  3. ^ Verany, Cedric (1 November 2008). "Monaco Cimetière : des bornes interactives pour retrouver les tombes". Monaco Matin. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
  4. ^ "Visite funéraire de Monaco". Amis et Passionés du Père-Lachaise. Retrieved 26 December 2015.
  5. ^ a b c Bostock, William W. (2002). "Collective Mental State and Individual Agency: Qualitative Factors in Social Science Explanation". Forum Qualitative Sozialforschung. 3 (3). ISSN 1438-5627. Retrieved 20 September 2009.
  6. ^ Roberts, Kimberly (8 April 2011). "Remembering Josephine Baker". Philadelphia Tribune.
  7. ^ a b c "About Josephine Baker: Biography". Official site of Josephine Baker. The Josephine Baker Estate. 2008. Retrieved 12 January 2009.
  8. ^ Wood, Ian (2000). The Josephine Baker Story. United Kingdom: MPG Books. pp. 241–318. ISBN 1-86074-286-6.
  9. ^ . Whitaker, Matthew C. (2011). Icons of Black America: Breaking Barriers and Crossing Boundaries. p. 64.
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  13. ^ Jacob M. Appel St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture, 2 May 2009. Baker biography
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  15. ^ a b c "A Biography of Josephine Baker". Voices.yahoo.com. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
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  19. ^ Jazz Book Review, from Josephine Baker: Image & Icon, edited by Olivia Lahs-Gonzales, 2006
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  25. ^ a b c d e f g Rose, Phyllis (1989). Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in her time. United States of America: Doubleday. ISBN 0-385-24891-1.
  26. ^ "Female Spies in World War I and World War II". About.com.
  27. ^ Rosette, Bennetta Jules (2007). Josephine Baker in Art And Life: The Icon And the Image. University of Illinois Press; 1 edition. p. 117. ISBN 978-0-252-07412-7.
  28. ^ Ann Shaffer (4 October 2006). "Review of Josephine Baker: A Centenary Tribute". blackgrooves. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
  29. ^ Hinckley, D. (9 November 2004). "Firestorm Incident at the Stork Club," New York Daily News, 1951. Retrieved May 21, 2015
  30. ^ Hinckley, David (9 November 2004). "Firestorm Incident At The Stork Club, 1951". New York Daily News. Retrieved 29 August 2010. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  31. ^ "Stork Club Refused to Serve Her, Josephine Baker Claims". Milwaukee Journal. 19 October 1951. Retrieved 29 August 2010. {{cite news}}: Italic or bold markup not allowed in: |publisher= (help)
  32. ^ Skibinsky, Anna (20 November 2005). "Another Look at Grace, Princess of Monaco". Epoch Times. Retrieved 11 October 2009.
  33. ^ Kissel, Howard (3 May 2000). "Stork Club Special Delivery Exhibit at the New York Historical Society recalls a glamour gone with the wind". Daily News. Retrieved 29 August 2010.
  34. ^ Bayard Rustin (28 February 2006). "Profiles in Courage for Black History Month". National Black Justice Coalition. Retrieved 8 January 2009.
  35. ^ "Civil Rights March on Washington". Infoplease.com. 28 August 1963. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
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  37. ^ Assouline, P. Simenon, A Biography. Knopf (1997) pp 74-75. ISBN 0679402853.
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  40. ^ Bisexuality and the Eroticism of Everyday Life By Marjorie Garber, p.122
  41. ^ http://ic.galegroup.com/ic/bic1/ReferenceDetailsPage/ReferenceDetailsWindow?zid=b263dfa03077ceb7573c6e33a97c11dd&action=2&catId=&documentId=GALE%7CK1623000015&userGroupName=gotitans&jsid=d3e8322cbc5b60fb9799e959add827c3
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  43. ^ Stephen Papich, Remembering Josephine. pg. 149
  44. ^ "Josephine Baker Biography". Women in History. 2008. Retrieved 12 January 2009.
  45. ^ a b c "African American Celebrity Josephine Baker, Dancer and Singer". AfricanAmericans.com. 2008. Retrieved 12 January 2009.
  46. ^ "Josephine Baker Is Dead in Paris at 68". The New York Times. 13 April 1975. p. 60. Retrieved 12 January 2009. {{cite news}}: Unknown parameter |authors= ignored (help)
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  48. ^ "Josephine Baker Biography - life, name, school, mother, old, information, born, husband, house, time, year". Notablebiographies.com. Retrieved 27 June 2014.
  49. ^ "Josephine Baker: A Chanteuse and a Fighter [eScholarship]". Escholarship.org. Retrieved 27 June 2014.
  50. ^ Johnson Publishing Company (15 May 1975). Jet. Johnson Publishing Company. pp. 28–. ISSN 0021-5996.
  51. ^ St. Louis Walk of Fame. "St. Louis Walk of Fame Inductees". stlouiswalkoffame.org. Retrieved 25 April 2013.
  52. ^ "Hall of Famous Missourians, Missouri House of Representatives". House.mo.gov. 29 March 1995. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
  53. ^ "Legacy Walk unveils five new bronze memorial plaques - 2342 - Gay Lesbian Bi Trans News - Windy City Times".
  54. ^ "What do twerking and the Charleston have in common?". BBC Magazine Monitor. 17 November 2014. Retrieved 18 November 2014.
  55. ^ "Chez Josephine". Jean-Claude Baker. 2009. Retrieved 13 January 2009.
  56. ^ "À la recherche de Joséphine»". www.paris-tourist.com. 25 November 2006. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
  57. ^ "Joséphine Baker". Retrieved 22 August 2012.
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  59. ^ "FRIDA". Retrieved 22 August 2012.
  60. ^ Ebert, Roger (1 November 2002). "Frida". roger ebert. Retrieved 22 August 2012.
  61. ^ "Es Muss Nicht Immer Kaviar Sein". The New York Times Book Review. 70: 150. 1965.
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  63. ^ Ronnie Scheib (13 March 2009). "''Variety'' review of the film ''Carmen and Geoffrey''". Variety.com. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
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  65. ^ see
  66. ^ Helen Gelzer biography: http://www.danforthmusic.net/about/
  67. ^ http://www.worldcat.org/title/helen-gelzer-as-josephine-the-concept-musical/oclc/058782854
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Bibliography

  • The Josephine Baker collection, 1926–2001 at Stanford University Libraries
  • Atwood, Kathryn J., and Sarah Olson. Women Heroes of World War II: 26 Stories of Espionage, Sabotage, Resistance, and Rescue. Chicago, Illinois : Chicago Review Press, 2011. ISBN 9781556529610
  • Baker, J. C. & Chase, C. (1993). Josephine: The Hungry Heart. New York: Random House. ISBN 0679409157
  • Baker, Jean-Claude, Chris Chase. (1995). Josephine: The Josephine Baker Story. Adams Media Corp. ISBN 1-55850-472-9
  • Baker, Josephine, Jo Bouillon. (1995). Josephine. Marlowe & Co. ISBN 1-56924-978-4
  • Bonini, Emmanuel (2000). La veritable Josephine Baker. Paris: Pigmalean Gerard Watelet. ISBN 2-85704-616-2
  • Guterl, Matthew, Josephine Baker and the Rainbow Tribe Cambridge, MA: Belknap Press, 2014. ISBN 9780674047556
  • Hammond O'Connor, Patrick. (1988). Josephine Baker. Jonathan Cape. ISBN 0-224-02441-8
  • Haney, Lynn. (1996). Naked at the Feast: A Biography of Josephine Baker. Robson Book Ltd. ISBN 0-86051-965-1
  • Jules-Rosette, Bennetta (2007). Josephine Baker in Art and Life: The Icon and the Image. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0-252-07412-2
  • Kraut, Anthea, "Between Primitivism and Diaspora: The Dance Performances of Josephine Baker, Zora Neale Hurston, and Katherine Dunham", Theatre Journal 55 (2003): 433–50.
  • Mackrell, Judith. Flappers: Six Women of a Dangerous Generation. 2013. ISBN 978-0-330-52952-5
  • Mahon, Elizabeth Kerri. (2011). Scandalous Women: The Lives and Loves of History's Most Notorious Women. Perigee Trade. ISBN 0-399-53645-0
  • Rose, Phyllis. (1991). Jazz Cleopatra: Josephine Baker in Her Time. Vintage. ISBN 0-679-73133-4
  • Rosette, Bennetta Jules. (2006). Josephine Baker: Image and Icon. Reedy Press. ISBN 1-933370-02-5
  • Schroeder, Alan. (1989). Ragtime Tumpie. Little, Brown, an award-winning children's picture book about Baker's childhood in St. Louis and her dream of becoming a dancer.
  • Schroeder, Alan. (1990) Josephine Baker. Chelsea House. ISBN 0-7910-1116-X, a young-adult biography.
  • Theile, Merlind. "Adopting the World: Josephine Baker's Rainbow Tribe" Spiegel Online International, 2 October 2009.
  • Wood, Ean. (2002). The Josephine Baker Story. Sanctuary Publishing. ISBN 1-86074-394-3
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