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Peer group

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For other uses, see Peer (disambiguation).
Early childhood peers engaged in parallel play

A peer group is a social group consisting of humans. Peer groups are an informal primary group of people who share a similar or equal status and who are usually of roughly the same age, tended to travel around and interact within the social aggregate[1] Members of a particular peer group often have similar interests and backgrounds, bonded by the premise of sameness.[2] However, some peer groups are very diverse, crossing social divides such as socioeconomic status, level of education, race, creed, culture, or religion.[citation needed]

Developmental psychology

Developmental psychologists, Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Erik Erikson, and Harry Stack Sullivan, have all argued that peer relationships provide a unique context for cognitive, social, and emotional development, with equality, reciprocity, cooperation, and intimacy, maturing and enhancing children's reasoning abilities and concern for others. Modern research echoes these sentiments, showing that social and emotional gains are indeed provided by peer interaction.[3]

JR Harris suggested in The Nurture Assumption that an individual's peer group significantly influences their intellectual and personal development. Several longitudinal studies support the conjecture that peer groups significantly effect scholastic achievement[4][5][6], but relatively few studies have examined the effect on tests of cognitive ability. There is some evidence that peer groups influence tests of cognitive ability, however.[7]

Bonding and functions of peer groups

A group of children playing together in Bolivia
  • Serve as a source of info.
Peer groups have a significant influence on psychological and social adjustments for group individuals.[8] Peer groups provide perspective outside of individual’s viewpoints. Members inside peer groups also learn to develop relationships with other in the social system. Peers, particularly group members, become important social referents for [9][10] teaching members customs, social norms, and different ideologies.[11]
  • Teaches gender roles.
Peer groups can also serve as a venue for teaching members Gender roles. Through gender-role socialization group members learn about sex differences, social and cultural expectations.[12] While boys and girls differ greatly there is not a one to one link between sex and gender role with males always being masculine and female always being feminine.[13] Both genders can contain different levels of masculinity and femininity.[14][15] Peer groups like gender roles can consist of all males, all females, or both male and female. Peer groups can have great influence or peer pressure on each other’s gender role behavior depending on the amount of pressure. If a peer group holds to a strong social norm, member will behave in ways predicted by their gender roles, but if there is not a unanimous peer agreement gender roles do not correlate with behavior[16]
  • Serves as a practicing venue to adulthood.
Adolescent Peer groups provide support for children, and teens as they assimilate into the adult society decreasing dependence on parents, and increasing feeling of self-sufficiency and connecting with a much larger social network.[17][18][19] this is “a period in which individuals are expanding their perspective beyond the family how to and learning negotiate relationships with others in the social system. Peers, particularly group members, become important social referents” [20][21] Peer groups also have influence on individual member’s attitudes, and behaviors on many cultural, and social issues such as drug use, violence, academic achievement[22][23][24] and even the development and expression of prejudice.[25][26][27]
  • Teaches unity & collective behavior
Peer Groups “ provide an influential social setting in which group norms are developed, and enforced through socialization processes that promote within-group similarity.[28] Peer groups cohesion is determined, and maintained by such factors as group Communication, Group consensus, and Group conformity concerning attitude and behavior. As members of peer groups interconnect, and agree, a normative code arises. This Normative code can become very rigid deciding group behavior, and dress.[29] Peer group individuality is increased by normative codes, and intergroup conflict. Member Deviation from the strict normative code can lead to rejection from the group.[30]

Gender differences

  • Male
Male peer groups tend to display more assertive behavior and independence. Male peer groups also tend to display more antagonistic behavior than girls.[31] Status hierarchies develop within Males peer groups having members vie for position for a time, but eventually a stable hierarchy is established reducing intragroup conflict.[32][33][34] Many Adolescent male peer groups use homophobic behavior (e.g., using homophobic epithets or making homophobic statements) to assert masculinity and identify inappropriate behavior among group members.[35]
  • Female
Female peer group members often feel greater investments in their social relationships than Males.[36][37] Because of this investment female peer groups place a greater importance on group affiliation. This need of affiliation also leads females to dissent less and be more conforming to peer group norms compared to males.[38] Status hierarchies are also formed in female groups, but often denied by group members .[39][40][41] The great value placed on group membership also causes female groups to be more exclusive and resistant to new members after the group has been set. Furthermore, females great investments in social relationships tends to lead to more positive interactions than those of males.[42]

Peer pressure

The term peer pressure is often used to describe instances where an individual feels indirectly pressured into changing their behavior to match that of their peers. Taking up smoking and underage drinking are two of the best known examples. In spite of the often negative connotations of the term, peer pressure can be used positively.

See also

References

  1. ^ "Peer group definition". encarta.msn.com. Retrieved 25 November 2010.
  2. ^ Wolf, Sun. (2008). Peer groups: expanding our study of small group communication. Thousand oaks,CA: Sage publications, Inc. ISBN 978-1-4129-2686-7
  3. ^ Siegler, Robert (2006). How Children Develop, Exploring Child Develop Student Media Tool Kit & Scientific American Reader to Accompany How Children Develop. New York: Worth Publishers. ISBN 0716761130
  4. ^ Kindermann, Thomas A (1993). "Natural peer groups as contexts for individual development: The case of children's motivation in school". Vol 29(6): 970–977. {{cite journal}}: |volume= has extra text (help); Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  5. ^ Sacerdote, Bruce (2001). "Peer Effects With Random Assignment: Results For Dartmouth Roommates". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  6. ^ Robertson, Donald; Symons, James (2003). "Do Peer Groups Matter? Peer Group versus Schooling Effects on Academic Attainment". 70: 31–53. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  7. ^ "Peer Effects in Academic Outcomes: Evidence from a Natural Experiment". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  8. ^ Vandell, Deborah Lowe, Developmental Psychology, 0012-1649, 2000, Vol. 36, Issue 6) Ward D. (1985). Generations and the expression of symbolic racism. Political Psychology, 6,1–18.
  9. ^ Sherif, M., & Sherif, C. (1964). Reference groups. Chicago: Regnery
  10. ^ Youniss, J., & Smollar, J. (1985). Adolescents' relations with mothers, fathers, and friends.Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
  11. ^ Clausen, John A. (ed.) (1968) Socialization and Society, Boston: Little Brown and Company. p5
  12. ^ Maslach, C. "Individuation, gender role, and dissent: Personality mediators of situational forces." Journal of personality and social psychology 53.6: 1088-1093
  13. ^ Maslach, C. "Individuation, gender role, and dissent: Personality mediators of situational forces." Journal of personality and social psychology 53.6: 1088-1093
  14. ^ Bem, S. L. (1975). Sex role adaptability: One consequence of psychological androgyny. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 31, 634–643.
  15. ^ Spence, J. T., & Helmreich, R. (1978). Masculinity and femininity. Austin: University of Texas Press.
  16. ^ Santee, R. T., & Maslach, C. (1982). To agree or not to agree: Personal dissent amid social pressure to conform. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 690–700.
  17. ^ Blos, P. (1967). The second individuation process of adolescence. The Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 22, 162–186
  18. ^ Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity: Youth and crisis. New York: Norton.
  19. ^ Newman, B. M., & Newman, P. R. (1976). Early adolescence and its conflict: Group identity versus alienation. Adolescence, 11, 261–274.
  20. ^ Sherif, M., & Sherif, C. (1964). Reference groups. Chicago: Regnery.
  21. ^ Youniss & Smollar, 1985).
  22. ^ Ennett, S. T., & Bauman, K. E. (1994). The contribution of influence and selection to adolescent peer group homogeneity: The case of adolescent cigarette smoking. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 653–663.
  23. ^ Espelage, D. L., Holt, M. K., & Henkel, R. R. (2003). Examination of peer-group contextual effects on aggression during early adolescence. Child Development, 74, 205–220.
  24. ^ Ryan, A. M. (2001). The peer group as a context for the development of young adolescent motivation and achievement. Child Development, 72, 1135–1150
  25. ^ Aboud, F. E. (2005). The development of prejudice in childhood and adolescence. In J. F.Dovidio, P.Glick, & L. A.Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after
  26. ^ Allport (pp. 310–326). Malden, MA: Blackwell.
  27. ^ Fishbein, H. D. (1996). Peer prejudice and discrimination: Evolutionary, cultural, and developmental dynamics. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
  28. ^ Eder, D., & Nenga, S. K. (2003). Socialization in adolescence. In J.Delamater (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology (pp. 157–182). New York: Kluwer Academic
  29. ^ Sherif, M., & Sherif, C. (1964). Reference groups. Chicago: Regnery
  30. ^ Gavin, Leslie A., and Wyndol Furman. "Age differences in adolescents' perceptions of their peer groups." Developmental Psychology 25.5 (1989): 827-834. PsycARTICLES. EBSCO. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.
  31. ^ Gavin, Leslie A., and Wyndol Furman. "Age differences in adolescents' perceptions of their peer groups." Developmental Psychology 25.5 (1989): 827-834. PsycARTICLES. EBSCO. Web. 22 Sept. 2010.
  32. ^ Savin-Williams, R. C. (1976). An ethological study of dominance formation and maintenance in a group of human adolescents. Child Development, 47, 972–979.
  33. ^ Savin-Williams, R. C. (1980a). Dominance hierarchies in groups of middle to late adolescent males. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9, 75.
  34. ^ Savin-Williams, R. C. (1980b). Social interactions of adolescent females in natural groups. In H. C.Foot, A. J.Chapman, & J. R.Smith (Eds.), Friendship and social relations in children(pp. 343–364). New York: Wiley.
  35. ^ Phoenix, A., Frosh, S., & Pattman, R. (2003). Producing contradictory masculine subject positions: Narratives of threat, homophobia, and bullying in 11–14 year old boys. Journal of Social Issues, 59, 179–195.
  36. ^ Douvan, E., & Adelson, J. (1966). The adolescent experience. New York: Wiley.
  37. ^ Hallinan, M. T. (1980). Patterns of cliquing among youth. In H. C.Foote, A. J.Chapman, & J. R.Smith (Eds.), Friendship and social relations in children (pp. 321–342). New York: Wiley.
  38. ^ Santee, R. T., & Maslach, C. (1982). To agree or not to agree: Personal dissent amid social pressure to conform. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 690–700
  39. ^ Savin-Williams, R. C. (1976). An ethological study of dominance formation and maintenance in a group of human adolescents. Child Development, 47, 972–979.
  40. ^ Savin-Williams, R. C. (1980a). Dominance hierarchies in groups of middle to late adolescent males. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 9, 75.
  41. ^ Savin-Williams, R. C. (1980b). Social interactions of adolescent females in natural groups. In H. C.Foot, A. J.Chapman, & J. R.Smith (Eds.), Friendship and social relations in children (pp. 343–364). New York: Wiley
  42. ^ Gavin, Leslie A., and Wyndol Furman. "Age differences in adolescents' perceptions of their peer groups." Developmental Psychology 25.5 (1989): 827-834. PsycARTICLES. EBSCO.Web. 22 Sept. 2010.

Further reading

  • An evolutionary perspective on children's motivation in the peer group. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 19(1), 53-73. Full text
  • Insko, C.A. Et.al. (2009). Reducing intergroup conflict through the consideration of future consequences. European journal of social psychology, 39(5), 831-841.
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