School counselor

A school counselor is a counselor and educator who works in K-12 schools to provide academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social competencies to all students and other stakeholders. Older, dated terms for the profession were guidance counselor or educational counselor but School Counselor" is the preferred term in the United States and has been for several decades since the American School Counselor Association advocated its exclusive use along with an extensive definition of school counseling and preferred roles for school counselors (ASCA, 2005); (www.schoolcounselor.org). In countries influenced by British English, the terms school counsellor and school guidance counsellor are in use as evidenced by websites for school counsellors in Canada, the UK, Australia, New Zealand, and India. In the USA, the need for high school counselors was traditionally emphasized moreso than school counselors in lower grades(Schmidt, 2003) but now multiple states in the USA mandate school counselors at elementary, middle, and high school levels. Many countries vary as to whether school counseling services are provided based on economics, social capital, and the status of School Counselor certification and credentialing movements within Education departments at the country/local level. The major accreditation body for Counselor Education/School Counseling programs is the Council for the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Programs (CACREP) located in the United States, and branching out to encourage international program accreditation in counseling (www.cacrep.org).

History

Some elementary school counselors use books and other media to facilitate the counseling process.

The history of school counseling around the world varies greatly based on how different countries and local communities have chosen to provide academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social skills and competencies to K-12 children and their families based on economic and social capital resources and public versus private educational settings in what is now called a school counseling program (ASCA, 2005).

In the United States, the school counseling profession began with the vocational guidance movement at the beginning of the 20th century, now known as career development. Jesse B. Davis was the first to provide a systematic school guidance program. In 1907, he became the principal of a high school and encouraged the school English teachers to use compositions and lessons to relate career interests, develop character, and avoid behavioral problems. Many others during this time did the same. For example, in 1908, Frank Parsons, "Father of Vocational Guidance" established the Bureau of Vocational Guidance to assist young people in making the transition from school to work.

From the 1920s to the 1930s in the United States, school counseling and guidance grew because of the rise of progressive education in schools. This movement emphasized personal, social, moral development. Many schools reacted to this movement as anti-educational, saying that schools should teach only the fundamentals of education. This, combined with the economic hardship of the Great Depression, led to a decline in school counseling and guidance. In the 1940s, the U.S. used psychologists and counselors to select, recruit, and train military personnel. This propelled the counseling movement in schools by providing ways to test students and meet their needs. Schools accepted these military tests openly. Also, Carl Rogers' emphasis on helping relationships during this time influenced the profession of school counseling. In the 1950s the government established the Guidance and Personnel Services Section in the Division of State and Local School Systems. In 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik I. Out of concern that the Russians were beating the U.S. in the space race, which had military implications, and that there were not enough scientists and mathematicians, the American government passed the National Defense Education Act, which spurred a huge growth in vocational guidance through large amounts of funding. In the 1960s, the profession of school counseling grew as new legislation and professional developments were established to refine and further the profession and improve education (Schmidt, 2003).

The 1960s was also a time of great federal funding in the United States for land grant colleges and universities interested in establishing and growing what are now known as Counselor Education programs (www.aces.org). School counseling began to shift from a focus exclusively on career development to a focus on student personal and social issues paralleling the rise of social justice and civil rights movements in the United States. It was also in the late 60s and early 1970s that Prof. Norm Gysbers began the work to shift from seeing school counselors as solitary professionals into a more strategic and systemic goal of having a comprehensive developmental school counseling program for all students K-12 (ASCA, 2005). His and his colleagues' work and research evidence showing strong correlations between fully implemented school counseling programs and student academic success was critical to beginning to show an evidence base for the profession especially at the high school level based on their work in the state of Missouri (Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun, 1997).

But school counseling in the 1980s and early 1990s in the United States was not seen as a player in educational reform efforts buffeting the educational community (Stone & Dahir, 2006). The danger was the profession becoming irrelevant as the standards-based educational movement gained strength in the 1990s with little evidence of systemic effectiveness for school counselors. In response, Campbell & Dahir (1997) consulted widely with school counselors at the elementary, middle, and high school levels and created the ASCA National Standards for School Counseling with three core domains (Academic, Career, Personal/Social), nine standards, and specific competencies and indicators for K-12 students (ASCA, 2005). A year later, the first systemic meta-analysis of school counseling was published and gave the profession a wake-up call in terms of the need to focus on outcome research and the small set of methodologically accurate school counseling outcome research studies in academic, career, and personal/social domains (Whiston & Sexton, 1998).

Also in the late 1990s, a former mathematics teacher, school counselor, and administrator, Pat Martin, was hired by The Education Trust (www.edtrust.org) to start work on a project to focus the school counseling profession on helping to close the achievement gap overwhelming hindering the life successes of children and adolescents of color, poor and working class children and adolescents, bilingual children and adolescents and children and adolescents with disabilities. Martin was able to develop focus groups of K-12 students, parents, guardians, teachers, building leaders, and superintendents, and then interviewed professors of school counseling in Counselor Education programs. She hired a retired school counselor educator from Oregon State University, Dr. Reese House, and they worked to create what emerged in 2003 as the National Center for Transforming School Counseling at The Education Trust (www.edtrust.org). Their foci included both changing how school counseling was taught at the graduate level and by changing the practices of K-12 school counselors in districts throughout the USA in order to teach school counselors how to prevent and intervene to help close achievement and opportunity gaps for all students. In the focus groups, they found what Hart & Jacobi (1992) had indicated was accurate--that too many school counselors were working as gatekeepers for the status quo instead of advocates. Too many school counselors were using inequitable practices and unwilling to challenge inequitable school policies, which kept students from nondominant backgrounds getting the coursework and academic, career, and college readiness skills needed to successfully graduate from high school and pursue rigorous post-secondary options including college. They funded six $500,000 grants for six different Counselor Education/School Counseling programs, with a special focus on both rural and urban settings, to completely transform their school counseling programs to include a focus on teaching school counselor candidates advocacy, leadership, teaming and collaboration, equity assessment using data, and culturally competent program counseling and coordination beginning in 1998 (Indiana State University, University of Georgia, University of West Georgia, University of California-Northridge, University of North Florida, and Lewis & Clark University) and then over 25 other Counselor Education/School Counseling programs joined as companion institutions in the following decade (www.edtrust.org). By 2008, NCTSC consultants had also worked in over 100 districts around the United States including most major cities to help transform the work of school counselors to help close gaps and challenge inappropriate policies and procedures through the use of data and assessing equity.

In 2003, the Center for School Counseling Outcome Research http://www.umass.edu/schoolcounseling/ (Dimmitt, Carey, & Hatch, 2007) was developed as a national clearinghouse for evidence-based practice with regular research briefs disseminated and original research projects developed and implemented with founding director Dr. Jay Carey. One of the research fellows, Dr. Tim Poynton, developed the EZAnalyze software program for all school counselors to use as free-ware to assist in using data-based interventions. In 2002, the American School Counselor Association released the ASCA National Model framework for school counseling programs, written by Dr. Trish Hatch and Dr. Judy Bowers, comprising some of the top school counseling components in the field into one model--the work of Norm Gysbers, Curly & Sharon Johnson, Robert Myrick, Dahir & Campbell's ASCA National Standards, and the skill-based focus for closing gaps from the Education Trust's Pat Martin and Reese House into one document.

In 2004, the ASCA Code of Ethics was substantially revised to focus on issues of equity, closing gaps, and ensuring all students received access to a K-12 school counseling program (www.schoolcounselor.org)

In 2004, Pat Martin left the Education Trust and moved to the College Board. She laster hired School Counselor Educator Dr. Vivian Lee and they developed an equity-focused entity on school counselors and college counseling, the National Office for School Counselor Advocacy (NOSCA) (http://professionals.collegeboard.com/policy-advocacy/educators/nosca). NOSCA has developed research scholarships for research on college counseling by K-12 school counselors and how it is taught in School Counselor Education programs. The first NOSCA study was released in 2008 by Jay Carey and colleagues focusing on innovations in selected College Board "Inspiration Award" schools where school counselors collaborated inside and outside their schools for high college-going rates and strong college-going cultures in schools with large numbers of students of nondominant backgrounds (College Board, 2008).

The history of the profession continues to shift as more parents, guardians, teachers, building leaders, and government officials become aware of the changes in the profession and as the evidence base and equity-building skills of school counselor candidates and school counselors in K-12 schools develop.

On January 1, 2006, Congress officially declared February 6-10 as National School Counseling Week.

Theoretical framework and services

Professional School Counselors implement a comprehensive school counseling program that promotes and enhances student achievement through a school counseling or guidance curriculum, individual planning strategies, responsive services and comprehensive school counseling program support/advocacy. A fully-implemented district-wide comprehensive school counseling program meets the needs of 100% of the students—just as the district's mathematics program is for 100% of the students. Professional School Counselors, in most U.S. states, have earned a Master's degree in school counseling. They are employed in elementary, middle/junior high and high schools and in district supervisory, counselor education and post-secondary settings. Their work is varied, with attention focused on developmental stages of student growth, including the needs, tasks, and student interests related to those stages(Schmidt, 2003).

Professional School Counselors meet the needs of student in three basic domains: academic development, career development, and personal/social development with an increasing emphasis on college readiness. Knowledge, understanding and skill in these domains are developed through classroom instruction, appraisal, consultation, counseling, coordination, and collaboration. For example, in appraisal, school counselors may use a variety of personality and vocational assessment methods to help students explore vocation needs and interests. Classroom guidance lessons are designed to be preventive in nature and include self-management and self-monitoring skills. The Responsive Services component of the Professional School Counselor's role provides individual and/or small group counseling for students. For example, if a student's behavior is interfering with his or her achievement, the Professional school counselor will observe that student in a class, provide consultation to teachers and other personnel to develop (with the student) a plan to address the behavioral issue(s), and then work together (collaboration) to implement the plan. They also help by providing consultation services to family members.

Additionally, professional school counselors may lead classroom guidance on a variety of topics within the three domains such as personal/social issues relative to student needs, or establish groups to address common issues among students, such as divorce or death. The topics of character education and diversity are usually infused into the guidance curricula. Often counselors will coordinate outside groups that wish to help with student needs such as academics, or coordinate a state program that teaches about child abuse or drugs, through on-stage drama (Schmidt, 2003)

Elementary School Counseling

Elementary professional school counselors following best practices provide developmental school counseling curriculum lessons (Stone & Dahir, 2006) on academic, career, college readiness, and personal and social competencies, advising and academic/career/college readiness planning to all students and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of young children K-6 according to sources such as the ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2005). Traditionally less emphasis has been placed on college readiness counseling at the elementary school level in the United States and elsewhere around the world, but that is changing as more school counseling programs move to evidenced-base work with data and specific results (Dimmitt, Carey, & Hatch, 2007) that show how school counseling programs help to close achievement and opportunity gaps in terms of which students have access to school counseling programs and early college readiness activities and which students do not (College Board, 2008). To facilitate the school counseling process, school counselors use a variety of theories and techniques including developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered (Rogerian) listening and influencing skills, systemic, family, multicultural (Holcomb-McCoy & Chen-Hayes, 2007), and play therapy. Sink & Stroh (2003) released a research study showing the effectiveness of elementary school counseling programs in Washington state.

Middle School Counseling

In middle school counseling, professional school counselors following best practices provide developmental school counseling curriculum lessons (Stone & Dahir, 2006) on academic, career, college readiness, and personal and social competencies, advising and academic/career/college readiness planning to all students and individual and group counseling for some students and their families to meet the developmental needs of late childhood and early adolescence according to sources such as the ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2005). Increasing emphasis has been placed on college readiness counseling at the middle school level in the United States and elsewhere around the world as more school counseling programs move to evidenced-base work with data and specific results (Dimmitt, Carey, & Hatch, 2007) that show how school counseling programs help to close achievement and opportunity gaps in terms of which students have access to school counseling programs and early college readiness activities and which students do not (College Board, 2008). Middle School College Readiness curricula have been developed by The College Board that can be used to assist students and their families in this process. To facilitate the school counseling process, school counselors use a variety of theories and techniques including developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered (Rogerian) listening and influencing skills, systemic, family, multicultural (Holcomb-McCoy & Chen-Hayes, 2007), and play therapy. Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to high school are a key area including career exploration and assessment with seventh and eighth grade students. Sink, Akos, Turnbull, & Mvududu released a study in 2008 confirming the effectiveness of middle school comprehensive school counseling programs in Washington state (Sink, Akos, Turnbull, & Mvududu, 2008).

High School Counseling

In high school, professional school counselors following best practices provide developmental school counseling curriculum lessons (Stone & Dahir, 2006) on academic, career, college readiness, and personal and social competencies, advising and academic/career/college readiness planning to all students and individual and group counseling for some students to meet the developmental needs of adolescents according to sources such as the ASCA National Model (ASCA, 2005). Increasing emphasis has been placed on college readiness counseling at the high school level in the United States and elsewhere around the world as more school counseling programs move to evidenced-base work with data and specific results (Dimmitt, Carey, & Hatch, 2007) that show how school counseling programs help to close achievement and opportunity gaps in terms of which students have access to school counseling programs and early college readiness activities and which students do not (College Board, 2008). High School College Readiness curricula have been developed by The College Board that can be used to assist in this process. To facilitate the school counseling process, school counselors use a variety of theories and techniques including developmental, cognitive-behavioral, person-centered (Rogerian) listening and influencing skills, systemic, family, multicultural (Holcomb-McCoy & Chen-Hayes, 2007), and play therapy. Transitional issues to ensure successful transitions to college, other post-secondary educational options, and careers are a key area.[citation needed] The high school counselor helps students and their families prepare for rigorous post-secondary education and/or training options (e.g. college, trade school) by engaging students and their families in finding accurate and meaningful information on entrance requirements, financial aid, recommendation letters, test-preparation and so forth. Professional School Counselors at the high school level spend much of their time helping students and their families monitor their progress toward graduation and being adequately prepared for post-secondary options including college. Some students now turn to private college admissions counselors specialized in college admissions but the ethics of so doing is open to great debate in terms of who has access to this funding and there is little research-based evidence of effectiveness on the part of these outside parties. The fees for these college admissions counselors can be as high as $30,000. A framework for Professional School Counselor responsibilities and roles is outlined in the ASCA (American School Counselor Association) National Model (2005). Lapan, Gysbers, & Sun's (1997) study showed correlational evidence of the effectiveness of fully implemented school counseling programs on high school students' academic success. Carey et al's 2008 study released by the College Board's NOSCA showed specific best practices being used by school counselors to raise college-going rates within a strong college-going environment in multiple high schools in the United States with large numbers of students of nondominant cultural identities.

Education and Certification/Credentialing of School Counselors Around the World

The education of school counselors (school counsellors) around the world varies greatly based on the laws and cultures of specific countries and the historical influences of their respective educational and credentialing systems and professional identities related to who delivers academic, career, college readiness, and personal/social information, advising, curriculum, and counseling and related services. In the United States, a professional School Counselor is a certified educator with a master's degree in school counseling (usually housed in a Counselor Education graduate program) with specific school counseling graduate training including unique qualifications and skills to address all students’ academic, career, college readiness and personal/social needs through the use of school counseling programs that deliver specific measurable competencies. About half of all Counselor Education programs that offer school counseling are accredited by the Council on the Accreditation of Counseling and Related Educational Programs (CACREP) and all but one are currently in the United States with one in Canada and one program under accreditation review in Mexico as of 2008 and maintains a current list of accredited programs and programs in the accreditation process on their website (www.cacrep.org). CACREP has identified in 2008 an interest in accrediting more programs outside of the United States (www.cacrep.org). According to CACREP, an accredited school counseling program offers specific coursework in Professional Identity and Ethics, Human Development, Counseling Theories, Group Work, Career Counseling, Multicultural/Diversity Counseling, Assessment, Research and Program Evaluation, and Clinical Coursework in a 100-hour practicum under the supervision of both a school counseling faculty member and a certified school counselor site supervisor (master's degree in school counseling or higher, and appropriate certification) and a 600-hour internship under the supervision of both a school counseling faculty member and a certified school counselor site supervisor (master's degree in school counseling or higher, and appropriate certification) (CACREP, 2001). CACREP released the revision of the Standards for 2009 in 2008, and made a major change moving toward performance-based accreditation including evidence of school counselor candidate learning. In addition, in the 2009 standards, CACREP greatly tightened and enhanced the school counseling standards with specific evidence needed of how school counseling students receive education in foundations; counseling prevention and intervention; diversity and advocacy; assessment; research and evaluation; academic development; collaboration and consultation; and leadership in K-12 school counseling contexts. (CACREP, 2009).

Certification practices for school counselors vary around the world. School Counselors in the United States may opt for national certification through two different boards. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) requires a two-to-three year process of performance based assessment, and demonstrate (in writing) content knowledge in human growth/development, diverse populations, school counseling programs, theories, data, and change and collaboration. As of February, 2005, 30 states offer financial incentives for this certification. Also in the USA, The National Board for Certified Counselors (NBCC) requires passing the National Certified School Counselor Examination (NCSC), which includes 40 multiple choice questions and seven simulated cases which assess school counselors abilities to make critical decisions on the spot. Additionally, a master's degree and three years of supervised experience are required. NBPTS also requires three years of experience, however a master's degree is not required, but only state certification (41 of 50 require a master's degree). At least four states offer financial incentives for the NCSC certification (McLeod, 2005). Both certifications have benefits and costs that a school counselor would want to consider for national certification. For more information, see external links.

Job Growth and Earnings for School Counselors Around the World

The rate of job growth and earnings for school counselors depends greatly on the country that one is employed in and whether the school is funded publicly or privately. School Counselors working in international schools or "American" schools around the world may find similar work environments and expectations to current best practices in the United States. Outside of those schools, expectations (and pay) vary greatly based on the level of school counselor or school counsellor identity, expectations, and legal and certification requirements and expectations. In the United States, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook (OOH) the median salary for school counselors in the United States in May 2004 was $45,570. The middle 50 percent earned between $34,530 and $58,400. Also, school counselors could earn additional money working summer jobs as counselors for schools or community agencies, and among all counseling fields, are currently (2004) paid the highest salary. Overall employment for counselors is faster than average, and school counselors should find a favorable job market because demand is higher than the graduation rates of school counseling programs. In the United States, rural areas and urban areas traditionally have been under-served by school counselors in public schools due to both funding shortages and often a lack of best practice models. With the advent of No Child Left Behind legislation and a mandate for school counselors to be working with data and showing evidence-based practice, school counselors who are able to show and share their results in assisting to close gaps are in the best position to argue for increased school counseling resources and positions for their programs (ASCA, 2005).

School Counseling Around the World

The degree to which school counseling services are included in the range of services provided as a part of educational services varies internationally based on public versus private schools and the financial and social capital resources in various countries and communities. Worldwide, their are large achievement, opportunity, funding, and attainment gaps in terms of who gets to have a K-12 education and then pursue additional education, and who does not. In some countries, school counseling, frequently career education/development/counseling, is provided by educational specialists (for example- Botswana, Finland, Israel, Malta, Nigeria, Romania, Turkey, United States). In other cases, school counseling is provided by classroom teachers who either have such duties added to their typical teaching load or teach only a limited load to allow for counseling activities (for example- China, India, Japan, Mexico, South Korea, Taiwan, Zambia