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PDP-11 CPU board

Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, such as the central processing unit (CPU), random access memory (RAM), motherboard, computer data storage, graphics card, sound card, and computer case. It includes external devices such as a monitor, mouse, keyboard, and speakers.[1][2]

By contrast, software is the set of instructions that can be stored and run by hardware. Hardware is so-termed because it is hard or rigid with respect to changes, whereas software is soft because it is easy to change.

Hardware is typically directed by the software to execute any command or instruction. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system, although other systems exist with only hardware.

History

Further information: History of computing

Early computing devices more complicated than the ancient abacus date to the seventeenth century. French mathematician Blaise Pascal designed a gear-based device that could add and subtract, selling around 50 models. The stepped reckoner was invented by Gottfried Leibniz by 1676, which could also divide and multiply. Due to the limitations of contemporary fabrication and design flaws, Leibniz' reckoner was not very functional, but similar devices (Leibniz wheel) remained in use into the 1970s.[3] In the 19th century, Englishman Charles Babbage invented the difference engine, a mechanical device to calculate polynomials for astronomical purposes.[4] Babbage also designed a general-purpose computer that was never built. Much of the design was incorporated into the earliest computers: punch cards for input and output, memory, an arithmetic unit analogous to central processing units, and even a primitive programming language similar to assembly language.[5]

In 1936, Alan Turing developed the universal Turing machine to model any type of computer, proving that no computer would be able to solve the decision problem.[6] The universal Turing machine was a type of stored-program computer capable of mimicking the operations of any Turing machine (computer model) based on the software instructions passed to it. The storage of computer programs is key to the operation of modern computers and is the connection between computer hardware and software.[7] Even prior to this, in the mid-19th century mathematician George Boole invented Boolean algebra—a system of logic where each proposition is either true or false. Boolean algebra is now the basis of the circuits that model the transistors and other components of integrated circuits that make up modern computer hardware.[8] In 1945, Turing finished the design for a computer (the Automatic Computing Engine) that was never built.[9]

Von Neumann architecture scheme

Around this time, technological advancement in relays and vacuum tubes enabled the construction of the first computers.[10] Building on Babbage's design, relay computers were built by George Stibitz at Bell Laboratories and Harvard University's Howard Aiken, who engineered the MARK I.[5] Also in 1945, mathematician John von Neumann—working on the ENIAC project at the University of Pennsylvania—devised the underlying von Neumann architecture that has served as the template for most modern computers.[11] Von Neumann's design featured a centralized memory that stored both data and programs, a central processing unit (CPU) with priority of access to the memory, and input and output (I/O) units. Von Neumann used a single bus to transfer data, meaning that his solution to the storage problem by locating programs and data adjacent to each other created the Von Neumann bottleneck when the system tries to fetch both at the same time—often throttling the system's performance.[12]

Computer architecture

Main article: computer architecture


Growth in processor performance, 1978–2010

The most common instruction set architecture (ISA)—the interface between a computer's hardware and software—is based on the one devised by von Neumann in 1945.[13] Despite the separation of the computing unit and the I/O system in many diagrams, typically the hardware is shared, with a bit in the computing unit indicating whether it is in computation or I/O mode.[14] Common types of ISAs include CISC (complex instruction set computer), RISC (reduced instruction set computer), vector operations, and hybrid modes.[15] CISC involves using a larger expression set to minimize the number of instructions the machines need to use.[16] Based on a recognition that only a few instructions are commonly used, RISC shrinks the instruction set for added simplicity, which also enables the inclusion of more registers.[17] After the invention of RISC in the 1980s, RISC based architectures that used pipelining and caching to increase performance displaced CISC architectures, particularly in applications with restrictions on power usage or space (such as mobile phones). From 1986 to 2003, the annual rate of improvement in hardware performance exceeded 50 percent, enabling the development of new computing devices such as tablets and mobiles.[18]

In the twenty-first century, increases in performance have been driven by increasing exploitation of parallelism. Applications are often parallelizable in two ways: either the same function is running across multiple areas of data (data parallelism) or different tasks can be performed simultaneously with limited interaction (task parallelism).[19] These forms of parallelism are accommodated by various hardware strategies, including instruction-level parallelism (such as instruction pipelining), vector architectures and graphical processing units (GPUs) that are able to implement data parallelism, thread-level parallelism and request-level parallelism (both implementing task-level parallelism).[19]

Cache hierarchy is part of another aspect of the computer architecture, the microarchitecture.[15]

Computer architecture requires prioritizing between different goals, such as cost, speed, availability, and energy efficiency. The designer must have a good grasp of the hardware requirements and many different aspects of computing, from compilers to integrated circuit design.[20]

Types of computer hardware systems

Personal computer

Basic hardware components of a personal computer, including a monitor, a motherboard, a CPU, a RAM, two expansion cards, a power supply, an optical disc drive, a hard disk drive, a keyboard and a mouse
Inside a custom-built computer: power supply at the bottom has its own cooling fan

The personal computer is one of the most common types of computer due to its versatility and relatively low price.

  • Desktop personal computers have a monitor, a keyboard, a mouse, and a computer case. The computer case holds the motherboard, fixed or removable disk drives for data storage, the power supply, and may contain other peripheral devices such as modems or network interfaces. Some models of desktop computers integrated the monitor and keyboard into the same case as the processor and power supply. Separating the elements allows the user to arrange the components in a pleasing, comfortable array, at the cost of managing power and data cables between them.
  • Laptops are designed for portability but operate similarly to desktop PCs.[21] They may use lower-power or reduced size components, with lower performance than a similarly priced desktop computer.[22] Laptops contain the keyboard, display, and processor in one case. The monitor in the folding upper cover of the case can be closed for transportation, to protect the screen and keyboard. Instead of a mouse, laptops may have a touchpad or pointing stick.
  • Tablets are portable computers that use a touch screen as the primary input device. Tablets generally weigh less and are smaller than laptops.[citation needed] Some tablets include fold-out keyboards or offer connections to separate external keyboards. Some models of laptop computers have a detachable keyboard, which allows the system to be configured as a touch-screen tablet. They are sometimes called "2-in-1 detachable laptops" or "tablet-laptop hybrids".[23]
  • Mobile phones are designed to have an extended battery life and light weight, while having less functionality than larger computers. They have diverse hardware architecture, often including antennas, microphones, cameras, GPS devices, and speakers. Power and data connections vary between phones.[24]

Large-scale computers

An IBM System z9 mainframe
  • A mainframe computer is a much larger computer that typically fills a room and may cost many hundreds or thousands of times as much as a personal computer. They are designed to perform large numbers of calculations for governments and large enterprises.
  • In the 1960s and 1970s, more and more departments started to use cheaper and dedicated systems for specific purposes like process control and laboratory automation. A minicomputer, or colloquially mini, is a class of smaller computers that was developed in the mid-1960s[25][26] and sold for much less than mainframe[27] and mid-size computers from IBM and its direct competitors.
  • Supercomputers can cost hundreds of millions of dollars. They are intended to maximize performance with floating-point arithmetic and running batch programs that take a very long time (such as weeks) to complete. As a result of the need for communication between parallel programs, the speed of the internal network must be prioritized.[28]
  • Warehouse scale computers are larger versions of cluster computers that came into fashion with software as a service provided via the internet. Their design is intended to minimize cost per operation and power usage, as they can cost over $100 million for a warehouse and the computers which go inside (the computers must be replaced every few years). Although availability is crucial for SaaS products, the software is designed to compensate for availability failures—unlike supercomputers.[28]

Virtual hardware

Virtual hardware is software that mimics the function of hardware; it is commonly used in infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) and platform as a Service (PaaS).[29]

Embedded system

Embedded systems have the most variation in their processing power and cost: from an 8-bit processor that could cost less than USD$0.10, to higher-end processors capable of billions of operations per second and costing over USD$100. Cost is a particular concern with these systems, with designers often choosing the cheapest option that satisfies the performance requirements.[30]

Components

Case

Main article: Computer case

A computer case encloses most of the components of a desktop computer system. It provides mechanical support and protection for internal elements such as the motherboard, disk drives, and power supply, and controls and directs the flow of cooling air over internal components. The case is also part of the system to control electromagnetic interference radiated by the computer and protects internal parts from electrostatic discharge. Large tower cases provide space for multiple disk drives or other peripherals and usually stand on the floor, while desktop cases provide less expansion room. All-in-one style designs include a video display built into the same case. Portable and laptop computers require cases that provide impact protection for the unit. Hobbyists may decorate the cases with colored lights, paint, or other features, in an activity called case modding.

Power supply

Main article: Power supply unit

Most personal computer power supply units meet the ATX standard and convert from alternating current (AC) at between 120 and 277 volts provided from a power outlet to direct current (DC) at a much lower voltage: typically 12, 5, or 3.3 volts.[31]

Motherboard

Computer motherboard
Main article: Motherboard

The motherboard is the main component of a computer. It is a board with integrated circuitry that connects the other parts of the computer including the CPU, the RAM, the disk drives (CD, DVD, hard disk, or any others) as well as any peripherals connected via the ports or the expansion slots. The integrated circuit (IC) chips in a computer typically contain billions of tiny metal–oxide–semiconductor field-effect transistors (MOSFETs).[32]

Components directly attached to or to part of the motherboard include:

Expansion cards

Main article: Expansion card

An expansion card in computing is a printed circuit board that can be inserted into an expansion slot of a computer motherboard or backplane to add functionality to a computer system via the expansion bus. Expansion cards can be used to obtain or expand on features not offered by the motherboard.

Storage devices

Main article: Computer data storage

A storage device is computer hardware or digital media that is used for storing, porting, and extracting data files and objects. It can hold and store information either temporarily or permanently and can be internal or external to a computer. Data storage is a core function and fundamental component of computers. Dedicated storage devices include RAIDs and tape libraries.

Fixed media

Data is stored by a computer using a variety of media. Hard disk drives (HDDs) are found in virtually all older computers, due to their high capacity and low cost, but solid-state drives (SSDs) are faster and more power efficient, although currently more expensive than hard drives in terms of dollar per gigabyte,[34] so are often found in personal computers built post-2007.[35] SSDs use flash memory, which stores data on MOS memory chips consisting of floating-gate MOSFET memory cells. Some systems may use a disk array controller for greater performance or reliability.

Removable media

To transfer data between computers, an external flash memory device (such as a memory card or USB flash drive) or optical disc (such as a CD-ROM, DVD-ROM or BD-ROM) may be used. Their usefulness depends on being readable by other systems; the majority of machines have an optical disk drive (ODD), and virtually all have at least one Universal Serial Bus (USB) port. USB sticks are typically pre-formatted with the FAT32 file system, which is widely supported across operating systems.

Input/output

Main article: Peripheral

Input and output devices are typically housed externally to the main computer chassis. The following are either standard or very common to many computer systems.

Input devices allow the user to enter information into the system, or control its operation. Most personal computers have a mouse and keyboard, but laptop systems typically use a touchpad instead of a mouse. Other input devices include webcams, microphones, joysticks, and image scanners.

Output devices are designed around the senses of human beings. For example, monitors display text that can be read, speakers produce sound that can be heard.[36] Such devices also could include printers or a Braille embosser.

Sales

Global revenue from computer hardware in 2023 reached $705.17 billion.[37]

Recycling

Main article: Computer recycling

Because computer parts contain hazardous materials, there is a growing movement to recycle old and outdated parts.[38] Computer hardware contain dangerous chemicals such as lead, mercury, nickel, and cadmium. According to the EPA these e-wastes have a harmful effect on the environment unless they are disposed of properly. Making hardware requires energy, and recycling parts will reduce air pollution, water pollution, as well as greenhouse gas emissions.[39] Disposing unauthorized computer equipment is in fact illegal. Legislation makes it mandatory to recycle computers through the government approved facilities. Recycling a computer can be made easier by taking out certain reusable parts. For example, the RAM, DVD drive, the graphics card, hard drive or SSD, and other similar removable parts can be reused.

Many materials used in computer hardware can be recovered by recycling for use in future production. Reuse of tin, silicon, iron, aluminum, and a variety of plastics that are present in bulk in computers or other electronics can reduce the costs of constructing new systems. Components frequently contain copper, gold, tantalum,[40][41] silver, platinum, palladium, and lead as well as other valuable materials suitable for reclamation.[42][43]

Toxic computer components

The central processing unit contains many toxic materials. It contains lead and chromium in the metal plates. Resistors, semiconductors, infrared detectors, stabilizers, cables, and wires contain cadmium. The circuit boards in a computer contain mercury, and chromium.[44] When these types of materials, and chemicals are disposed improperly will become hazardous for the environment.

Environmental effects

When e-waste byproducts leach into groundwater, are burned, or get mishandled during recycling, it causes harm. Health problems associated with such toxins include impaired mental development, cancer, and damage to the lungs, liver, and kidneys.[45] Computer components contain many toxic substances, like dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), cadmium, chromium, radioactive isotopes and mercury. Circuit boards contain considerable quantities of lead-tin solders that are more likely to leach into groundwater or create air pollution due to incineration.[46]

Recycling of computer hardware is considered environmentally friendly because it prevents hazardous waste, including heavy metals and carcinogens, from entering the atmosphere, landfill or waterways. While electronics consist a small fraction of total waste generated, they are far more dangerous. There is stringent legislation designed to enforce and encourage the sustainable disposal of appliances, the most notable being the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive of the European Union and the United States National Computer Recycling Act.[47]

Efforts for minimizing computer hardware waste

As computer hardware contain a wide number of metals inside, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) encourages the collection and recycling of computer hardware. "E-cycling", the recycling of computer hardware, refers to the donation, reuse, shredding and general collection of used electronics. Generically, the term refers to the process of collecting, brokering, disassembling, repairing and recycling the components or metals contained in used or discarded electronic equipment, otherwise known as electronic waste (e-waste). "E-cyclable" items include, but are not limited to: televisions, computers, microwave ovens, vacuum cleaners, telephones and cellular phones, stereos, and VCRs and DVDs just about anything that has a cord, light or takes some kind of battery.[48]

Some companies, such as Dell and Apple, will recycle computers of their make or any other make. Otherwise, a computer can be donated to Computer Aid International which is an organization that recycles and refurbishes old computers for hospitals, schools, universities, etc.[49]

See also

References

  1. ^ "Parts of computer". Microsoft. Archived from the original on 27 November 2013. Retrieved 5 December 2013.
  2. ^ Gilster, Ron (2001). PC hardware : a beginner's guide. Internet Archive. New York; London : McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-212990-8.
  3. ^ Blum 2011, p. 13-14.
  4. ^ Blum 2011, p. 14.
  5. ^ a b Blum 2011, p. 15.
  6. ^ Blum 2011, pp. 21, 23.
  7. ^ Blum 2011, p. 25.
  8. ^ Blum 2011, pp. 34–35.
  9. ^ Blum 2011, pp. 71–72.
  10. ^ Blum 2011, p. 72.
  11. ^ Blum 2011, pp. 72, 74.
  12. ^ Blum 2011, p. 74.
  13. ^ Mendelson 2022, p. 2.
  14. ^ Mendelson 2022, pp. 2–3.
  15. ^ a b Mendelson 2022, p. 3.
  16. ^ Mendelson 2022, p. 8.
  17. ^ Mendelson 2022, p. 15.
  18. ^ Hennessy & Patterson 2011, p. 2.
  19. ^ a b Hennessy & Patterson 2011, p. 9.
  20. ^ Hennessy & Patterson 2011, p. 11.
  21. ^ PC hardware : a beginner's guide. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. 26 April 2001. pp. 21. ISBN 9780072129908.
  22. ^ "Desktop computer vs. Laptop computer". Computer Hope. 30 December 2019. Retrieved 15 January 2020.
  23. ^ Cipriani, Jason (29 May 2020). "Best 2-in-1 Detachable Laptops 2020: The Best Tablet-Laptop Hybrids". IGN. Retrieved 20 July 2020.
  24. ^ Ahmed, Rizwan; Dharaskar, Rajiv V. (2009). Mobile Forensics: An Introduction from Indian Law Enforcement Perspective. Springer. p. 177. ISBN 978-3-642-00405-6.
  25. ^ Henderson, Rebecca M.; Newell, Richard G., eds. (2011). Accelerating energy innovation : insights from multiple sectors. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0226326832.
  26. ^ Huang, Han-Way (2014). The atme AVR microcontroller : MEGA and XMEGA in assembly and C. Australia; United Kingdom: Delmar Cengage Learning. p. 4. ISBN 978-1133607298.
  27. ^ Estabrooks, Maurice (1995). Electronic technology, corporate strategy, and world transformation. Westport, Conn.: Quorum Books. p. 53. ISBN 0899309690.
  28. ^ a b Hennessy & Patterson 2011, p. 8.
  29. ^ Wang, Shuangbao Paul (2021). Computer Architecture and Organization: Fundamentals and Architecture Security. Springer Nature. pp. 1, 3. ISBN 978-981-16-5662-0.
  30. ^ Hennessy & Patterson 2011, pp. 8–9.
  31. ^ Wilson, Kevin (2022). Exploring Computer Hardware: The Illustrated Guide to Understanding Computer Hardware, Components, Peripherals & Networks. Elluminet Press. ISBN 978-1-913151-73-7.
  32. ^ "13 Sextillion & Counting: The Long & Winding Road to the Most Frequently Manufactured Human Artifact in History". Computer History Museum. 2 April 2018. Retrieved 28 July 2019.
  33. ^ Cite error: The named reference tomshardware was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  34. ^ Domingo, Joel. "SSD vs. HDD: What's the Difference?". PCMag. Archived from the original on 19 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  35. ^ Edwards, Benj (17 January 2012). "Evolution of the Solid-State Drive". PCWorld. Archived from the original on 25 March 2017. Retrieved 24 March 2017.
  36. ^ PC hardware : a beginner's guide. Osborne/McGraw-Hill. 2001. pp. 20. ISBN 9780072129908.
  37. ^ "Computer Hardware Market Size, Trends and Global Forecast To 2032". The Business Research Company. Retrieved 3 March 2023.
  38. ^ "How to recycle your old computer". Digital Trends. 18 December 2016. Archived from the original on 17 April 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
  39. ^ "Newtech Recycling Specializes in Computer Disposal, Laptop Disposal, Desktop Disposal Mainframe Disposal and Server Disposal". Newtech Recycling, Inc. Archived from the original on 29 March 2017. Retrieved 18 April 2017.
  40. ^ Robert-Tissot, Sarah (2011). "TANTALUM". Royal Australian Chemical instatute. Archived from the original on 26 February 2017. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  41. ^ Padilla, Abraham (February 2019). "TANTALUM" (PDF). United states geological survey. Retrieved 3 March 2019.
  42. ^ Bleiwas, D (July 2001). "Obsolete Computers, "Gold Mine," or High-Tech Trash? Resource Recovery from Recycling" (PDF). USGS. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
  43. ^ LeBlanc, Rick. "Electronic Devices a Rich Source of Precious Metals for Recyclers". The Balance Small Business. Retrieved 4 March 2019.
  44. ^ "The Toxic Components of Computers and Monitors". Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  45. ^ "What's Going On with Electronic Waste? – Electronics TakeBack Coalition". Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.
  46. ^ Toothman, Jessika (2 June 2008). "What Happens to your Discarded Old Computer?". HowStuffWorks.
  47. ^ National Computer Recycling Act of 2005, H.R. 425, 109th Cong. (2005–2006)
  48. ^ T. Gallo, Daniel (15 July 2013). "Broad Overview of E-Waste Management Policies in the U.S." (PDF). www.epa.gov. Retrieved 17 January 2020.
  49. ^ Schofield, Jack (19 February 2015). "How can I safely recycle my old PCs?". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Archived from the original on 27 April 2017. Retrieved 26 April 2017.

==Sources==<

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