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For the occupation, see Vaidya.

Bengali Baidya
Regions with significant populations
West bengal, India
Languages
Bengali
Religion
Hinduism

Baidya[1] or Vaidya[2] is a Hindu community located in Bengal. Baidyas, a caste (jāti) of Ayurvedic physicians, have long had pre-eminence in society alongside Brahmins and Kayasthas. In the colonial era, the Bhadraloks were drawn primarily, but not exclusively, from these top three upper castes, who continue to maintain a collective hegemony in West Bengal.[3][4][5]

Origin

The origins of the Baidya is surrounded by a wide variety of overlapping and sometimes contradictory myths. Aside from two genealogies and Upapuraṇas, premodern Bengali literature does not discuss details of the caste's origins.[6] The details in these historic texts were referred to and revised in mediaeval literature on society and law. Inscriptions are sparse and do not provide much information.[citation needed]

The terms Baidya means a physician in the Bengali and Sanskrit languages; they were probably an occupational group of Ayurveds and drew people from various varnas including Brahmins.[7][8][9][10] Bengal is the only place where they went on to form a caste group.[11] According to Kumkum Chatterjee, they had likely crystallized into a caste community (jati) long before the Sultanate rule.[12][6] According to R. C. Majumdar and R. C. Hazra, however, a karana family used to serve as the royal physicians in 11th and 12th century Bengal.[13]

Upapuraṇas

The Upapuranas played a significant role in the history of Bengal: they propagated and established Brahminic ideals in the hitherto-impure fringes of Aryavarta and accommodated elements of the vernacular culture to gain acceptance among masses.[14][a] No other Hindu scriptures mentions the Baidya as a caste group.[13][b] Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa (Brh. P.; c. 13th century[c]) is the earliest document to chronicle a hierarchy of castes in Bengal.[6][15][d] It became the standard text for popular negotiations of caste status.[16] The Brahma Vaivarta Purana (Bv. P.) —notable for a very late Bengali recension (c. 14/15th c.)— names a hierarchy of castes but varies in details from Brh. P.[17][18][15]

Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa

Brh. P. does not mention Baidyas separately but as among the Ambasthas, deriving from a Venu-Prthu myth.[15][17][e][20] Baidyas evolved from the forbidden unions of Brahmin fathers with Vaishya mothers during the reign of Venu, and were classified as Uttama Saṃkaras (highest of mixed classes).[21][17][18][f]

After Venu was deposed by the Gods, Prthu was installed as a Vishnu reincarnate and upon a request to restore dharma, proposed to integrate the Saṃkar into four varnas.[17] Thus, the Ambasthas were brought under Sudras, purposed and synonymised to Baidyas (physicians) in light of existing capacities, and conferred a single right to Ayurveda with help from Ashvin.[17][18][g] Then, they were made to undergo a second birth as penance for bearing the Svarnakaras from Vaishya mothers - this rebirth is noted to be their identifying characteristic.[17][18] Pending completion of these rituals, they were branded as among the Satsudras (higher Sudras), in total devotion to Brahmins and bearing a lack of material envy, and thus endowed with the right of inviting Srotriya Brahmins and accepting service from lower Sudras; one stanza even notes them to be Saṃkarottama (best of Saṃkaras).[17]

Brahma Vaivarta Purana

Bv. P. treats the Baidyas as separate to Ambasthas but notes both to be Satsudras.[10][15][h]

Ashvin, a Kshatriya, raped a Brahmin pilgrim and she, along with the illegitimate son, were driven out by her husband.[10][13] This son, who was brought up by Ashvin and trained in Ayurveda, went on to become the progenitor of Baidyas.[13] Here, the Baidyas went on to bear the Vyalagrahins of a Sudra woman; Svarnakaras were granted a different origin story.[22]

Interpretation

According to Ryosuke Furui, the Varṇasaṃkara myth and the subsequent ordaining of Saṃkaras in Brh. P. reflected and reinforced the existing social hierarchy of ancient Bengal—that is, the Ambasthas who migrated from North India into ancient Bengal,[23][24][25][26][27][28] held an eminent position in pre-Brahminic Bengal and practiced medicine—while allowing the Brahmin authors to understand an alien society and establish themselves at the top.[17][i][j] Ramaprasad Chanda supported such a reading as early as 1916.[29] Annapurna Chattopadhyaya largely agrees and cites differences in list of mixed castes produced in Brahminical literature of different areas; he notes the sharp increase in tabulated castes at Bv. P. as correlational to increasing social complexity. Nripendra Kumar Dutt, who equated the Baidyas with Ambasthas, hypothesised these Upapuranas were tools for Brahmin law-makers to reify the Parshuram myth and deprive Vaidyas of its mixed-caste privileges such as a sacred thread.[7]

Kulanjis

Kulanjis—a form of literature endemic to Bengal—were essentially genealogical registers but were actually texts in flux, reflecting contemporary society; they primarily served to establish hierarchy vis à vis others.[6][k] One of the two extant pre-modern Baidya genealogies, Chandraprabha (CP; c. late 17th century) constructs a descent from the semi-legendary Ambasthas.[9] These claims of equivalence were not present in the slightly older Sadvaidyakulapnjika (SV).[15][l]

Both of the genealogies claim Adi Sura and Ballāla Sena as their own; this is agreed upon by some Brahmin kulanjis but rejected by Kayastha ones.[13] The particulars of appropriation vary—CP said the Baidyas gained Kulin status for their sadachara (good conduct) in due course of time while SV reiterated the popular tradition of Ballāla Sena conferring Kulin status.[2][10] Sena is also hold to have divided the Baidyas into numerous sub-castes, depending on their place of residence.[10]

It is doubtful if the Ambasthas—mostly held to be of a Kshatriya origin in Hindu scriptures[m]—had any connection with the Baidyas of Bengal (or even the Vaidyas of South India).[10][n]

Inscriptions

The Gunaighar inscriptions, which have been dated to Vainyagupta (507 C.E.), mention demarcated agricultural tracts that were owned by Baidyas (profession).[16][o] The Bhatera Copper Plates mention the ākṣapaṭalika of King Isandeva (c. 1050) to be of Baidya lineage, on whose advice a parcel of land was granted to the family of a dead prince.[16][p][q]

Outside Bengal, the earliest reference to Vaidya occurs in three South Indian inscriptions of Nedunjeliyan I, a Vaidya chief who served in the dual roles of War-General and Prime Minister and the Vaidya-kula (translatable to "Vaidya clan" or "Vaidya family") was famed for expertise in music and Sastras.[r] They were classed as Brahmins.[13] It is plausible these people had some link with the Baidyas of Bengal; inscriptions of the Senas mentions migrations from Karnat and other places.[10]

History

Overview

Bengal, which is located far away from North India, exhibits a convoluted caste hierarchy in which discrimination persists but the praxis of varna significantly deviates from Brahminical theory. The Vaidya community was always famous for their Sanskrit learning,apart from being skilled in ayurveda they produced many great poets and scholars.[9] They despite being classed as Satsudras across much of pre-modern literature from Bengal,[s] have long been a part of the elite. Over hundreds of years, they went on to claim Brahmin status and climbed up the social hierarchy to reach a status that is almost at par with Brahmins. Projit Bihari Mukharji (2017) notes a detailed history of Baidyas' upward mobility is yet to be produced.[6]

Mediaeval Bengal

In mediaeval Bengal, Baidyas often branched out into fields other than medicine and composed a significant percentage of the elites in Sultanate, Mughal, and Nawabi Bengal.[12][31][32] They were reputed for their proficiency in Sanskrit, which they needed to read treatises of medicine.[12] By the end of sixteenth century, Baidyas were occupying a position of preeminence in the Bengali social hierarchy alongside Brahmins and Kayasthas; marriages between Baidyas and Kayasthas were commonplace.[12][6][9]

Around the late fifteenth century, Baidyas became intricately associated with the Caitanya Cult alongside Brahmins.[6] Murari Gupta, a childhood friend of Caitanya, was a famed physician of Navadwip and went on to compose Krsna Caitanya Caritamrta, his oldest extant biography in Sanskrit.[33] Narahari Sarkara, another among his closest devotees, composed Krsna Bhajanamrta, a theological commentary.[33] Sivananda Sena, an immensely wealthy Baidya, used to organize the annual trip of Caitanya devotees to Puri, and his son had written several devotional Sanskrit works.[33][34] As the cult shunned doctrines of equality after Caitanya's death, these associated Baidyas began enjoying a quasi-Brahminic status as Gaudiya Vasihnava gurus.[6][t]

Multiple Baidya authors partook in the Mangalkavya tradition, the foremost being Bijaya Gupta (late 15th c.).[35][u] In 1653 C.E., Ramakanta Dasa Kavikantahara wrote the oldest available Baidya kulanji — Sadvaidyakulapnjika.[10][30] Around the same time, Bharatamallika (c. 1650), a physician and an instructor of a tol, wrote numerous commentaries on Sanskrit texts like Amarakosha, and produced miscellaneous works on grammar and lexicography.[30][v] He would also write Chandraprabha (1675 C.E.), a commissioned kulanji of the Baidyas; and Ratnaprabha, a summary of the former text.[30][w]

Bharata had claimed a mixed-caste/Vaishya status for the Baidyas.[2][10] In the Caitanya Caritāmṛta of Baidya Krishnadasa Kaviraja, however, one Candrasekhara is variably referred to as a Baidya and a Sudra.[36][x] The Vallal Charita of Ānanda Bhaṭṭa[y] classed the Baidyas among Satsudras, of whom Kayasthas were held to be the highest. The Chandimangal of Mukundaram Chakrabarti (c. mid 16th century CE) places the Baidyas below Vaisyas, possibly indicating a Sudra status but above Kayasthas.[21][37][z][aa] Works by Raghunandana (c. mid 16th century) also hold Baidyas to be Sudras.[9]

Colonial Bengal

During the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twentieth centuries, acrimonious debates about the caste status of Baidyas occurred.[6][30][38] Around 1750, Raja Ballabh wished to have Brahmins officiate at his rituals; he sought Vaishya status and claimed a right of wearing sacred thread for the Baidyas of his own samaj.[9][39][40][41][12] On facing opposition from other Baidya zamindars, who thought this to be an attempt at gaining trans-samaj acceptance as a Baidya leader, and Brahmin scholars of Vikrampur, who resented against the loss of monopoly, Ballabh invited 131 Brahmins from Benaras, Kanauj, Navadwip, and other regions with expertise in Nyaya Shastra.[39][40] All of them adjudicated in his favour, with ceremonial costs running to 5 Lakhs.[39][40] However with more lower castes entering into the order of Vaishyas, Baidyas then sought equality with the Brahmins and claimed themselves to be "Gauna (secondary) Brahmins", leveraging the recently conferred right to upanayana.[9][12][6][ab]

Beginning in 1822, Brahmin and Baidya scholars produced a series of polemical pamphlets arguing against one another and in 1831, the Baidya Samaj was formed by Khudiram Bisharad, a teacher at the Native Medical Institution, to defend class interests.[6] Gangadhar Ray produced voluminous literature to put forward partisan claims on Baidyas descending from Brahmins.[6] Binodlal Sen later published Bharatamallika's genealogies in print.[6][30] A rivalry with the Kayasthas, who would be considered to be inferior thenceforth, became an integral part of this discourse;[ac] matrimonial alliances were discouraged, fomenting the rise of a rigid, endogamous caste group.[9][10][ad]

In 1893, Jnanendramohan Sengupta wrote Baidyajatir Baisista in an attempt to prove the Ambasthas had scriptural sanction of being ordained into sannyasa; Sengupta would remain a prolific author for the Baidya cause throughout the first quarter of the twentieth century.[42] In 1901, colonial ethnographer Herbert Hope Risley noted the Baidyas to be above Sudras but below Brahmins.[43] Baidya social historians like Umesh Chandra Gupta and Dinesh Chandra Sen supported Risley's observation with a measured scepticism and forged a glorious Baidya past in their writing of a history of Bengal from kulanjis. Gupta rebuked the Kayasthas for fabricating evidence to malign the Vaidyas as a low caste.[44][ae]

In the early twentieth century, Gananath Sen, the first dean of the Faculty of Ayurveda at Banaras Hindu University, opened a "Baidya Brahman Samiti" in Kolkata; the Baidyas were not merely equal to Brahmins but identical.[6] It was also suggested all Baidyas change their surnames to Sharma, a Brahmin patronymic.[6] In 1915 and 1916, Kuladakinkara Ray published Vaidyakulapanjika to advocate Baidyas were not just the same as Brahmins but the highest of them.[30][ag] In 1922, Basantakumar Sen wrote Baidya Jatir Itihas on the same themes.[42] Pascale Haag notes these efforts to gain mobility would not have partly succeeded without acceptance by Brahmin society, whose responses are yet to be studied.[30]

Notwithstanding these contestations, the dominance of Baidyas continued unabated into colonial rule when they proactively took to Western forms of education and held a disproportionate share of government jobs, elite professions, and landholding.[6][ah] A letter that was written by William Jones in around 1785 noted one Ramalocana Kanthavarna to be "a perfect grammarian and excellent moralist" who also ran a tol but being a Baidya, lacked the "priestly pride" of his Brahmin students.[46][ai] In the smallpox epidemic of 1840s in Dhaka, Baidyas refused to inoculate the masses and relegated such menial tasks to lower-ranked barbers and garland makers.[48] These attempts at attaining mobility were enmeshed with another nineteenth-century project of modernising Ayurveda.[6] Binodlal Sen had declared the genealogical works to be free for anyone who purchased medications above a certain value and Baidya medicine distributors were frequently found to sell revisionist caste histories.[6] Elements of colonial modernity—Western notions of physiology and medical instruments—were "braided" with Ayurveda to fashion Baidyas as the modern Brahmins.[49]

Baidyas were unquestionably established as among the "upper castes" by the mid-nineteenth century; they would go on to compose the Bhadralok Samaj—the highest "secular rank" in contemporary Bengal—along with Brahmins and Kayasthas, and serve as the eyes and ears of the British Government.[1][50][51][52][aj] Male as well as female literacy rate of Baidyas were remarkably higher than in the case of all other castes of Bengal, as recorded in the 1881 census—which was the first to record caste-wise literacy data—and ever since.[53][54] The Bhadraloks would be instrumental in demanding democratic reforms during the early twentieth century; a majority of "revolutionary terrorists" from Bengal who partook in the Indian independence movement came from this class.[51][55][56]

Modern Bengal

In modern Bengal, Baidyas' place in caste-hierarchy follows Brahmins — they wear the sacred thread, have access to scriptures, and use the surname Sharma (among others) but cannot conduct priestly services.[57][58] Whether they are Shudras or non-Brahmin twice-borns remains disputed by scholars. However, claims to Brahmin status continue unabated.[59][60][61][62][ak]

Their social status is almost at par with Brahmins.[63] As of 1960, inter-marriages between the Brahmins, Baidyas and Kayasthas were common and increasing.[64][65] Baidyas wield considerable socio-economic power in contemporary Bengal as part of Bhadraloks; though in absence of rigorous data, the precise extent is difficult to determine.[50] Parimal Ghosh notes this Bhadralok hegemony to have effectively disenfranchised the rest of Bengal from staking a claim to social capital.[66]

Notable people

See also

Notes

  1. ^ Refer Chakrabarti, Kunal (2001). Religious Process: The Puranas and the Making of a Regional Tradition. Oxford University Press. for an overview. The conclusion is worth noting: "The Brahmanization of Bengal ... seems to have engulfed most of the indigenous local cultures by the time the last redactions to the Puranas were made, and succeeded in forging a common religious cultural tradition, flexible enough to accommodate sub-regional variations and indifference to the emerging consensus on the dominant cultural mode among some social groups, and strong enough to take dissent in its stride."
  2. ^ Baidya authors of 19th and 20th century claimed Skanda Purana to have a description of the Baidya caste. They can't be located in currently available manuscripts.
  3. ^ Ludo Rocher however notes the text to contain multiple layers (like all other Puranas) making any dating impossible. However, he agrees with R. C. Hazra that a significant part was composed as a response to the Islamic conquest of Bengal.
  4. ^ Older sources on social setup include inscriptions of the Gupta and the Pala periods but Baidyas are not mentioned.[15]
  5. ^ The myth is very popular across a large set of Indian scriptures.[19] It probably has Indo-European origins.[19]
  6. ^ Venu had these mixed-castes further reproduce with other mixed-castes and four pure varnas. Those offspring were classed under Madhyama Saṃkaras and Adhama Saṃkaras. Besides, some tribes are classified as Mlecchas without invoking the myth.
  7. ^ All the Saṃkaras were classed under Sudras, true to the tradition of Bengal having only two varnas: Brahmins and Sudras.
  8. ^ Alongside were the 9 navasakas - all of them started out as Satsudras but three were demoted for various reasons. Then came, Patitas followed by Mlechhas.
  9. ^ Furui senses the express prohibitions on Ambastha/Baidyas to read the Puranas despite granting them the Ayurveda as indicative of a fear of encroachment upon Brahmin intellectual domain and a tacit acknowledgement of groups trained in alternate forms of knowledge; the deeming of Ambastha/Baidyas as Saṃkarottama were concessional transactions where Brahmins entered into co operational agreements with other groups but commanded nominal authority.[17]
  10. ^ In any case, whether the Bṛhaddharma Puraṇa succeeded in materializing and sustaining the Brahminical visions of Bengali society is doubtful; the medieval law commentary Dāyabhāga shares few things in common with Bṛhaddharma Purana.[17]
  11. ^ For a detailed discussion on Kulanji literature see Chatterjee, Kumkum (2009). The Cultures of History in Early Modern India: Persianization and Mughal Culture in Bengal. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195698800.
  12. ^ Sadvaidyakulapnjika does not invoke any such connection.[9] Chandraprabha mentions Bharatamallika's father to be a Vaidya and an Ambastha; it also quotes from Hindu scriptures to prove why Ambasthas and Baidyas are equable.[30] Annapurna Chattopadhyaya noted the "genuineness and historical bearing" of these passages to be "questionable".[6] R. C. Majumdar, D. C. Ganguly, and R. C. Hazra reiterate concerns of genuineness but note that Bharatamallika must have reflected contemporary views.
  13. ^ The Puranas as well as Mahabharata hold them to be Kshatriyas.[6] Smriti and Shastra texts regard them as a mixed caste—of a Brahmin father and a lower caste wife.[6] The Jatakas mention them as Vaishyas. Ambastha Sutta, a Buddhist text regards them as Brahmins.[6] Also, see the next section on Upapuranas.
  14. ^ Nripendra K. Dutt, Pascale Haag as well as Poonam Bala concur that the terms were synonymous.[30] Jyotirmoyee Sarma hypothesizes both groups might have followed the same profession and eventually merged into one.[15] Dineshchandra Sircar and Annapurna Chattopadhyay express skepticism on the connection but consider Sarma's hypothesis to be plausible.[9] Projit Bihari Mukharji, however, rejects such an equivalence and notes "Ambastha" had meant different things in different contexts across the history of India; it was always a post-facto label claimed by different groups in their reinvention of themselves.[6] R. C. Majumdar rejected such an identification, too.[6]
  15. ^ The translation to Baidya is doubtful.
  16. ^ See Mitra, Rajendralal (August 1880). "Copper-Plate Inscriptions from Sylhet". Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. LIV: 141–151. for more details. No information exists about this dynasty (?) except what can be gleaned from these two plates; they were probably a lineage of the Devas.[16]
  17. ^ The Gaya Narasimha Temple Inscription was composed by one "Vaidya Bajrapani" during the reign of Nayapala, as was the Gaya Akshaybata Temple Inscription by "Vaidya Dharmapani" during the reign of Vigrahapala III. It is not wise to speculate on whether they were (B)Vaidyas — the Nalanda Stone Pillar inscription of Rajyapala explicitly notes one Vaidyanatha to be from the Vanik-kula (mercantile community).
  18. ^ The oldest inscription might have been the Talamanchi grant.
  19. ^ Saswati Sengupta writes, "The perspective is Brāhmaṇical but masquerades as a universal norm ostensibly outside of sectarian politics and historical maneuverings."
  20. ^ It must be borne in mind, however, the Baidya jati was not a homogeneous unit.[6] The community was divided into numerous endogamous samajes (societies) that exhibited strict conformity in rituals and social behaviour.[6] There were Shaivite Baidya samajes, with a marked antipathy for the Vaishnava cult.[6] Often, these samajes were further divided into sthans (places) that had variable degree of autonomy.[6]
  21. ^ Saswati Sengupta cites four other texts by Baidyas in a non-exhaustive list: two Chandi Mangalkavyas by Jaynārāyaṇa Sen (c. 1750) and Muktarāma Sen (Saradāmaṅgala, 1774), and two Manasa Mangalkavyas by Ṣaṣṭhībara Datta (late 17th c.) and Dbārikādāsa (prob. 18th c.)
  22. ^ See Meulenbeld, G. Jan (2000). "Seventeenth-Century authors and works". A History of Indian Medical Literature. Vol. II A. Egbert Forsten. p. 278. ISBN 9069801248. for an overview of his works.
  23. ^ Both Kavikantahara and Bharatamallika mentioned of several older genealogies, which are now-lost or (unlikely) yet to be retrieved.
  24. ^ This Candrasekhara was based in Banaras and might have been the court poet of Rao Surjan Singh.
  25. ^ The text reiterates a different version of the Brh. P. myth, where Vaidyas are held to be the son of an Ambastha father and a Vaisya mother. Ambastha was born of a Maula father and a Vaisya mother. Maula was created of a Brahmin father and a Kshatriya mother.
  26. ^ The social hierarchy, as described in the Mangalkavyas by Baidya authors (if at all), is not described in any source.
  27. ^ Kunal Chakrabarti and Sudipta Kuvairaj note Ch. M. to demonstrate a confluence of Brahminical and local folk traditions; their views of caste society differed from traditional Brahmanic literature.[37]
  28. ^ Mukharji notes movements to gain social mobility actively sought to safeguard their earned dominance by making sure lower-ranked castes remained as such. Vaidyas were no exception.
  29. ^ Kayasthas rejected the mobility claims of Baidyas to the extent of bribing Brahmins and instead chose to assert themselves as Kshatriyas.[10]
  30. ^ However, Baidyas continued to marry Kayasthas in East Bengal leading to a devolution in status.[10]
  31. ^ These efforts met with much resistance from positivist historians. Jadunath Sarkar, R. C. Majumdar, and other historians rejected the idea kulanjis were acceptable as evidences of history.
  32. ^ It was highlighted Baidyas taught the Vedas unlike Brahmins, who were "apparently" only allowed to only recite them. Also, Baidyas exhibited sacrificatory values in the preparation of pakayajna and utterance of mantras during the making of a medical remedy.
  33. ^ The text proposed the word Vaidya was constructed either from Veda or Vidya, redefined the word Ambastha as meaning the father (of patients incl. Brahmins), quoted from the Dharmaśāstra cannon about caste groups exhibiting social mobility as a result of virtuous deeds,[af] and highlighted from Veda and Smritis about products of mixed marriages being entitled to carry their paternal caste.[30]
  34. ^ According to David L. Curley, Baidyas were "serving in local revenue administrations, managing rent and revenue collections for zamindars, obtaining or providing short-term agrarian and mercantile credit, engaging in trade as agents or partners of the English and French East India Companies and acquiring zamindari estates".[45]
  35. ^ For an instance, Calcutta Sanskrit College barred Shudras from admission, initially allowing only Brahmins and Baidyas to enrol until Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar introduced admission for Kayasthas.[47]
  36. ^ Jyotirmoyee Sarma notes Baidyas already had (bhadralok) but strove (to the fascination of external observers) for the highest of "ceremonial/scriptural rank" (brahmin).
  37. ^ In 1960, Chattopdhyay noted Baidyas were still treated as Sudras in all orthodox religious occasions.[10]

References

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  3. ^ McDermott, Rachel Fell (2001-06-28). Mother of My Heart, Daughter of My Dreams: Kali and Uma in the Devotional Poetry of Bengal. Oxford University Press. p. 132. ISBN 978-0-19-803071-3.
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  6. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab Mukharji, Projit Bihari (2016-10-14). "A Baidya-Bourgeois World: The Sociology of Braided Sciences". Doctoring Traditions: Ayurveda, Small Technologies, and Braided Sciences. University of Chicago Press. doi:10.7208/9780226381824-003 (inactive 28 February 2022). ISBN 978-0-226-38182-4.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of February 2022 (link)
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  53. ^ Bhattacharya, Sabyasachi (2014-05-27). The Defining Moments in Bengal: 1920–1947. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-908934-5.
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  58. ^ Ray, Saumyajit (2009). "Understanding Indian Multiculturalism". In Raj, Christopher S.; McAndrew, Marie (eds.). Multiculturalism: Public Policy and Problem Areas in Canada and India. Canada: Manak Publications. p. 90.
  59. ^ Malcolm McLean (1998). Devoted to the Goddess: The Life and Work of Ramprasad. SUNY Press. pp. 163–. ISBN 978-1-4384-1258-0. there being no Kshatriya or Vaishya element in the indigenous population of Bengal. Ritually, the rank of the Baidya and the Kayasthas is the same as those of the Nabasakhs with whom they constitute the upper strata of the Bengali Sudras known as satsudra [sat meaning clean]. They are also referred to as jalacharaniya Sudras because of their right to offer drinking water to the clean Brahmans who can minister to them without defilement. However, in the secular context the Baidyas and Kayasthas, who were mostly landholders and professionals, occupy a much higher rank than the nabhasakshs, who are mostly traders, manufacturers, and agriculturists. It is due to this reason that Brahmans, Baidyas, and Kayasthas are usually combined together and referred to as uchchajati, i.e. higher castes
  60. ^ Mario Prayer (1 July 2009). "The social context of Politics in Rural West Bengal (1947-92)". In Elisabetta Basile; Ishita Mukhopadhyay (eds.). The Changing Identity of Rural India: A Socio-Historic Analysis. Anthem Press. pp. 203–. ISBN 978-1-84331-823-1. [In rural Bengal]On Occasions where profession was more relevant than ritual purity, Kayasthas, Baidyas and Nabhasakhs were considered together as Sudras whose water is acceptable to the Brahmins(jalacharaniya Shudras)
  61. ^ Geir Heierstad (2 January 2017). Caste, Entrepreneurship and the Illusions of Tradition: Branding the Potters of Kolkata. Anthem Press. pp. 45–46. ISBN 978-1-78308-519-4. Thus to complicate the picture even more, the Baidyas and Kayasthas are often grouped together with the Brahmans to constitute the higher caste group or uccha jati. Some of the Baidyas and the Kayasthas are known to have started using the sacred thread as the sign of being second-born.
  62. ^ D. Shyam Babu and R.S Khare (2010). Caste in Life: Experiencing Inequalities. PEARSON INDIA. p. 175. ISBN 978-93-325-0655-8. Vaidya A Shudra caste in Bengal. Also known as Baidya.
  63. ^ Lochan, Kanjiv (2003). Medicines of Early India: With Appendix on a Rare Ancient Text. Chaukhambha Sanskrit Bhawan. p. 110. ISBN 978-81-86937-66-2.
  64. ^ Lipner, Julius (2012-10-02). Hindus: Their Religious Beliefs and Practices. Routledge. p. 133. ISBN 978-1-135-24061-5.
  65. ^ Lloyd I. Rudolph; Susanne Hoeber Rudolph (15 July 1984). The Modernity of Tradition: Political Development in India. University of Chicago Press. pp. 124–. ISBN 978-0-226-73137-7. And Ronald Inden confirms, after spending 1964 and part of 1965 in Bengal preparing a dissertation on Kayasthas, that intermarriage is becoming increasingly frequent among the urban sections of the Kayasthas, Brahmans, and Vaidyas, that is, among those Western-ized and educated twice-born castes dominating the modern, better-paying, and more prestigious occupations of metropolitan Calcutta and constituting perhaps half of the city's population
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  73. ^ "গণমানুষের চলচ্চিত্রকার মৃণাল সেন | The Daily Star Bangla" (in Bengali). 2021-06-14. Archived from the original on 2021-06-14. Retrieved 2022-02-14. Mrinal Sen was born on 14 May 1923 in a Vaidyabrahman family in Jhiltuli mahalla of Faridpur city
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  79. ^ Bhāratī: Bulletin of the College of Indology. The College. 1985. He was born in a Traditional and reputed Vaidya family(a caste of physicians)
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