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Coordinates: 63°37′59″N 19°36′00″W / 63.633°N 19.6°W / 63.633; -19.6
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[[Image:Eyjafjallajökull volcanic ash composite.png|thumb|Composite map of the volcanic ash cloud spanning 14–25 April 2010]]
[[Image:Eyjafjallajökull volcanic ash composite.png|thumb|Composite map of the volcanic ash cloud spanning 14–25 April 2010]]


The '''2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull''' are a sequence of major [[volcano|volcanic]] events at [[Eyjafjallajökull]] in [[Iceland]] which disrupted [[air travel]] across western and northern [[Europe]] over an initial period of 6 days in April 2010. Additional localised disruption continues into May 2010.
The '''2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull''' are a sequence of major [[volcano|volcanic]] events at [[Eyjafjallajökull]] in [[Iceland]] which [[air travel disruption|disrupted air travel]] across western and northern [[Europe]] over an initial period of 6 days in April 2010. Additional localised disruption continues into May 2010.


Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and led to a [[volcanic eruption]] of [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] (VEI)&nbsp;1 on 20&nbsp;March 2010.<ref>{{cite news |title="Eruption in Eyjafjallajökull" |publisher=University of Iceland |author=Institute of Earth Sciences |accessdate=17 April 2010|
Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and led to a [[volcanic eruption]] of [[Volcanic Explosivity Index]] (VEI)&nbsp;1 on 20&nbsp;March 2010.<ref>{{cite news |title="Eruption in Eyjafjallajökull" |publisher=University of Iceland |author=Institute of Earth Sciences |accessdate=17 April 2010|

Revision as of 07:35, 11 May 2010

63°37′59″N 19°36′00″W / 63.633°N 19.6°W / 63.633; -19.6

Volcano plume on 17 April 2010.
Composite map of the volcanic ash cloud spanning 14–25 April 2010

The 2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull are a sequence of major volcanic events at Eyjafjallajökull in Iceland which disrupted air travel across western and northern Europe over an initial period of 6 days in April 2010. Additional localised disruption continues into May 2010.

Seismic activity started at the end of 2009 and led to a volcanic eruption of Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) 1 on 20 March 2010.[1] The plume of ash from a later ongoing eruption beginning on 14 April 2010 led to widespread disruption of air travel from 15 April, with much of the airspace in Europe closed until 20 April, causing cancellation of most flights within, to, and from Europe. The second ongoing eruption on 14 April 2010 resulted in an estimated 140 million cubic metres (180,000,000 cu yd) of ejected tephra during eruption, and the plume rose explosively to about 9 kilometres (30,000 ft) into the air, which makes it a (VEI 4) on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (preliminary estimate).[2]

Background

Main article: Eyjafjallajökull

Eyjafjallajökull ([pronunciation?], listenⓘ) is one of the smaller ice caps of Iceland. It is situated to the north of Skógar and to the west of the larger ice cap Mýrdalsjökull.

The ice cap covers the caldera of a volcano 1,666 metres (5,466 ft) in height that has erupted relatively frequently since the last Ice Age. The most recent major eruptions occurred in 920, 1612 (believed to have lasted only three days) and from 1821 to 1823 .[3] Previous eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull have been followed by eruptions at its larger neighbour, Katla;[4] on 20 April 2010 Icelandic President Ólafur Grímsson said that "the time for Katla to erupt is coming close ... we [Iceland] have prepared ... it is high time for European governments and airline authorities all over the world to start planning for the eventual Katla eruption".[5]

Second eruption

A study by the Icelandic Meteorological Office published on December 2009 indicated an increase in seismic activity around Eyjafjallajökull area during the years 2006–2009. The study reported increased activity that occurred between June and August 2009 (200 events), compared to a total of about 250 earthquakes recorded between September 2006 and August 2009. It further indicated that locations of most of the earthquakes in 2009 occurred between 8 to 12 kilometres (5.0 to 7.5 mi) depth east of the volcano‘s top crater.[6]

People observing the first fissure at Fimmvörðuháls

At the end of December 2009, seismic activity began around the Eyjafjallajökull volcano area, with thousands of small earthquakes (mostly of magnitude 1–2 Mw), 7 to 10 kilometres (4.3 to 6.2 mi) beneath the volcano.[7] By 26 February 2010 the Global Positioning System (GPS) equipment used by the Meteorological Institute of Iceland at Þorvaldseyri farm in the Eyjafjöll area (around 15 kilometres (9.3 mi) southeast of the location of the recent eruption[8]) had shown 3 centimetres displacement of the local crust in a southward direction, of which a 1 centimetre displacement had taken place within four days. This unusual seismic activity along with the rapid movement of the Earth's crust in the area gave geophysicists evidence that magma was flowing from underneath the crust into the magma chamber of the Eyjafjallajökull volcano and that pressure stemming from the process caused the (in geophysical terms) huge crustal displacement at Þorvaldseyri farm.[9] The seismic activity continued to increase and, from 3 to 5 March, close to 3,000 earthquakes were measured at the epicentre in the volcano. Most were too small (magnitude 2) to be read as presaging an eruption, but some could be detected in nearby towns.[10] The eruption is thought to have begun on 20 March, sometime between 10:30 pm and 11:30 pm local time (UTC), a few kilometres east of the glacier in the northern slopes of Fimmvörðuháls mountain pass.[11][12]

"Volcano tourism" quickly sprang up in the wake of the eruption, with tour companies offering trips to see the volcano.[13] The Icelandic Telecommunications company Mila has installed 3 webcams giving views of the eruption from Valahnúkur, Hvolsvöllur and Þórólfsfell.[14] The view of the eruption from Þórólfsfelli also includes a thermal imaging camera.

Evacuations

About 500 farmers and their families from the areas of Fljótshlíð, Eyjafjöll, and Landeyjar were evacuated overnight, and flights to and from Reykjavík and Keflavík International Airport were postponed, but on the evening of 21 March, domestic and international air traffic was allowed again.[15][16][17] Inhabitants of the risk zone of Fljótshlíð, Eyjafjöll, and Landeyjar area were allowed to return to their farms and homes after an evening meeting with the Civil Protection Department on 22 March and the evacuation plan was temporarily dismissed. Instead, the police closed the road to Þórsmörk, and the four-wheel-drive trail from Skógar village to the Fimmvörðuháls mountain pass, but these roads and trails were reopened on 29 March, though only for suitable four-wheel drives. When the second fissure appeared, the road was closed again because of the danger of flash floods, which could have developed if the fissure had opened near big ice caps or other snow reservoirs, but the road was again opened at around noon on 1 April.[18][19][20]

The fissure

The fissure is 150 metres (490 ft) long in a north-east to south-west direction, with 10 to 12 erupting lava craters which spew lava at a temperature of about 1,000 °C (1,800 °F) up to 150 metres (490 ft) into the air. The lava is alkali olivine basalt.[21] It is relatively viscous, causing the motion of the lava stream to the west and east of the fissure to be slow, making the eruption a typical effusive eruption.[22] The molten lava has flowed more than 4,000 metres (2.5 mi) to the north-east of the fissures, and into Hrunagil canyon, forming a more than 200 metres (660 ft) long fall of lava, and is slowly approaching Þórsmörk, but has not yet reached the flood plains of Krossá.[23][24][25] On 25 March 2010, while studying the eruption, scientists witnessed, for the first time in history, the formation of a pseudocrater during a steam explosion.[26] Crustal expansion continued at Þorvaldseyri for two days after the eruption began, but has been slowly decreasing, along with increasing volcanic activity, indicating that the input of magma into the magma chamber of the volcano is roughly equal to the magma output out of the eruption, giving evidence that this volcanic activity has reached equilibrium.[27]
A new fissure opened on 31 March, around 200 metres (660 ft) north-west of the original fissure.[13] Many witnesses were present while the new fissure opened. It is a bit smaller, around 300 metres (980 ft) long according to witnesses, and lava coming from it has now started to flow into Hvannárgil canyon. These two erupting fissures share the same magma chamber according to geophysicists. No unusual seismic activity was detected at the time the new fissure appeared, nor any crustal expansion according to many seismometers and GPS recorders situated in nearby areas.[28][29]

Second fissure, viewed from the north, on 2 April 2010

Geophysicist Magnús Tumi Einarsson said (at a press meeting in Hvolsvöllur on 21 March) that this eruption is small compared to, for example, the eruption of Hekla in 2000. The eruption, rather than taking place under the ice cap of the glacier, occurred in the mountain pass between the Eyjafjallajökull and Mýrdalsjökull glaciers. As long as the fissure is not near the glacier, the risk of flooding is minimal; however, the fissure could extend into the ice cap thereby greatly increasing the risk of flooding.[30] The radar stations of the Meteorological Institute of Iceland did not detect any appreciable amount of volcanic ashfall during the first 24 hours of the eruption.[31] However, during the night of 22 March, they reported some volcanic ash fall reaching the Fljótshlíð area (20 to 25 kilometres (12 to 16 mi) north-west of the eruption's location)[8] and Hvolsvöllur town (40 kilometres (25 mi) north-west of the eruption location)[8] leaving vehicles with a fine grey layer of volcanic ash. At around 07:00 on 22 March, an explosion launched eruption columns as far as 4 kilometres (13,000 ft) straight up into the air. This was the highest plume since the eruption started.[32] On 23 March, a small vapour explosion took place, when hot magma came into contact with nearby snowdrifts, emitting a huge vapour plume which reached an altitude of 7 kilometres (23,000 ft), and was detected on radars from the Meteorological Institute of Iceland. Since then many vapour explosions have taken place.[33]

Effect on water

On 22 March, a flow meter device situated in the Krossá glacial river (which drains Eyjafjallajökull and Mýrdalsjökull glaciers) in the Þórsmörk area (a few kilometres north-west of the erupting location) started to record a sudden rise in water level and in water temperature – the total water temperature rose by 6 °C (11 °F) over a two-hour period, which had never occurred so quickly in the Krossá river since measurements began. Shortly afterward, the water level returned to normal and water temperature decreased as well.[34] It is thought that this rise in water temperature is related to the eruption nearby and is affecting part of the Krossá drainage basin. The temperature of Hruná river, which flows through the narrow Hrunárgil canyon, into which part of the lava stream has been flowing, was recently recorded by geologists to be between 50 °C (122 °F) and 60 °C (140 °F), indicating that the river has been cooling the lava in that canyon.[35]

Analysis

Samples of volcanic ash collected near the eruption showed a silica concentration of 58%—much higher than in the lava flows.[36] The concentration of water-soluble fluoride is one third of the concentration typical in Hekla eruptions, with a mean value of 104 milligrams of fluoride per kilogram of ash. Agriculture is important in this region of Iceland,[37] and farmers near the volcano have been warned not to let their livestock drink from contaminated streams and water sources,[38] as high concentrations of fluoride can have deadly renal and hepatic effects, particularly in sheep.[39]

Farming

The Icelandic Food and Veterinary Authority released an announcement on 18 April 2010, asking that all horse owners who keep their herds outside be on the alert for ash fall. Where there is significant ash fall all horses must be sheltered indoors.[40] The thick layer of ash that has fallen on some Icelandic farms and pastures at Raufarfell has become wet and compact, making it very difficult to continue farming, harvesting or grazing livestock.[41]

Timeline of second eruption

  • The MODIS instrument on NASA's Aqua satellite captured an ash plume from Eyjafjallajökull Volcano over the North Atlantic at 13:20 UTC on 17 April 2010.
    The MODIS instrument on NASA's Aqua satellite captured an ash plume from Eyjafjallajökull Volcano over the North Atlantic at 13:20 UTC on 17 April 2010.
  • Same, uncropped version
    Same, uncropped version
  • The second eruption in Eyjafjallajökull. Seen from Fljótshlíð on 20 April 2010.
    The second eruption in Eyjafjallajökull. Seen from Fljótshlíð on 20 April 2010.
  • Dust particles suspended in the atmosphere scatter light from the setting sun, generating 'volcanic lavenders' like this one over the flight path of Leeds-Bradford Airport in England during the aviation shutdown
    Dust particles suspended in the atmosphere scatter light from the setting sun, generating 'volcanic lavenders' like this one over the flight path of Leeds-Bradford Airport in England during the aviation shutdown

Unlike the earlier eruption, the second eruption occurred beneath glacial ice. Cold water from melted ice quickly chilled the lava causing it to fragment into highly abrasive glass particles that were then carried into the eruption plume. This, together with the magnitude of the eruption, estimated to be (VEI 4)[2] and ten to twenty times larger than that on Fimmvörðuháls on 20 March, created a glass-rich plume in the upper atmosphere, which was very hazardous to aircraft.[42]

14 April 2010

Eyjafjallajökull resumed erupting after a brief pause, this time in the centre of the glacier, causing meltwater floods to rush down nearby rivers in two flows on either side of the volcano, and requiring 800 people to be evacuated. A second jökulhlaup/lahar traveled down the Markarfljot valley that evening.[43] The road along the Markarfljót river had been washed away in several places.[44]

16 April 2010

A pulsating eruptive column reached above 8 kilometres (5 mi) altitude, and lightning was frequently seen within the plume.[45]

17 April 2010

The eruption continued, but less explosively, with the plume rising to 5 kilometres (3 mi) rather than 13 kilometres (8 mi) as before, not high enough to travel across Europe.[46] The forecast for 18 April at 06:00 showed a significant plume continuing over northern Europe.[47]

18 April 2010

The Icelandic Meteorological Office (IMO) noted that radar measurement near Keflavik has not detected any plume from Eyjafjallajökull since 8 o'clock (local time), which implies that its level was below 10,000 feet (3,048 m). No reports of ash or floods were reported, although strong seismic activity was continuing.[48]

19 April 2010

According to IMO, the ash cloud reached a height of 5 kilometres (3 mi) and up to 5–6 km height south of the eruptive site. The IMO indicated that the ash producing phase of the eruption is giving way to a phase of lava flow. Magma splatters 1.5 to 3 kilometres (0.93 to 1.86 mi) into the air were detected.[49]

20 April 2010

Al-Jazeera English service correspondent David Chater, reporting from Hvolsvollur in southern Iceland, said that the volcano had begun spewing lava and heavy volcanic ash again, after appearing to calm down in the previous 24 hours. He said the activity at the volcano began to increase again late on 19 April and, "We are seeing a spectacular light show right now... fresh, huge bursts of lava flowing over the rim in front of me. There is fresh volcanic activity." He also noted a much heavier cloud of ash rising throughout Monday and drifting towards the Atlantic.[50] Latest results from GPS stations around Eyjafjallajökull by the Institute of Earth Sciences on 20 April 2010 showed deflation associated with the eruption and no movements associated with the Katla volcano presently observed.[51]

21 April 2010

The ash plume rose up to 2 kilometres (1 mi) above the volcano and up to 5 kilometres (3 mi) south of the volcano. The IMO reported decrease of seismic activity. Other reports indicated decrease of ash ejection and increase in lava flow. Southern skies off the coast of Iceland became ash free for the first time since the 2nd eruption.[52][53]

22 April 2010

The ash plume rose up to 3 to 4 kilometres (1.9 to 2.5 mi) high, seismic activity at Katla decreased since midnight but still relatively high.[54][55] There have been criticisms by the Icelandic press and travel industry to Icelands President Ólafur Ragnar Grímsson who ignited tourists fears of much bigger eruption at Katla volcano. He stated that the current eruption in Eyjafjallajökull is only a “small rehearsal” for an eruption in Katla, which would have much more dangerous consequences. Katla which last erupted in 1918 and has erupted shortly after the three known historic eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull in the years 920, 1612 and 1821. Scientists disagree regarding evidence of any imminent eruption at Katla.[56][57][58][59][60]

23 April 2010

The IMO and Institute of Earth Sciences reported stable seismic activity for the last 24–48 hours with some fluctuations[58] and no movements associated with Katla volcano. Water level in Markarfljot river slightly increased[54] in concordance with the seismic activity recorded. The plume reported at altitudes of 3 to 4.8 kilometres (1.9 to 3.0 mi) and up to 6 kilometres (4 mi) blowing in a south westerly direction. The plume steam could be visually seen for the first time from Icelands capital Reykjavík,[61] which had caused the closure of international flights at the city's airport, although little or no ash fall is predicted in Reykjavík.[62] The increase in seismic activity[63] is raising some geologists concern of a stir up of Katla volcano, which if it erupted would be huge compared to Eyjafjallajokulls' eruption and could cause major flooding and ash. It last erupted in 1918 for 24 consecutive days and lies underneath 1,000 feet (300 m) of ice.[64]

24 April 2010

Eleven days since the start of the second eruption, the plume reached 13,000 feet (4,000 m) with mild explosive activity.

28 April 2010

Continued disruption to flights and closure of some airports in Iceland.[65]

29 April 2010

The eruption showed no signs of termination. Plume elevations, magma discharge levels and tremors continued similar to the previous seven days, but with less intensity than at the peak. There were no measurable indications that the eruption is about to end. The lava flow determined to have commenced on 21 April 2010 had been melting the thick glacier ice north of the crater, resulting in water flow of 100–120 m3/s evident in a semi-continuous discharge of meltwater from Gígjökull. This caused the generation of large quantities of steam where the lava meets the ice. The flow of lava and magma was estimated at 20-40 t/s. Volcanic tremor activity remains the same over the past 2–3 days.[54][58][66]The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) warned on 25 April that the volcano was liable to revert to explosive eruptions at any time.[67]

2 May 2010

The Institute of Earth Sciences reported changes during the last 2 to 3 days. This included lava producing phase being larger than the explosive phase. Plume became darker, denser and wider than in the preceding week. Tephra fall-out increased in the vicinity of the volcano. Lava advanced over 3 km north of the eruption site and may have advanced further over the glacier edge side. Lava production is estimated at 20 m³/s (50 tonnes/s). Explosive activity increased in intensity during the last few days, and can be heard up to 40 km south-east of the eruption site. Glacier meltwater discharge has increased since 30 April 2010. Tremor levels have intensified, and are attributed to lava-ice interactions or conditions at the eruption site. Reported deflation of magma reservoir beneath Eyjafjallajökull and changes of deformation pattern.The eruption plume extends to altitudes between 4–5.4 km (13,000–18,000 ft) height and is visible 200 km from eruption site.[68][69] Wind direction on 3 May 2010 is pushing the ash cloud to east-south direction back towards Britain creating fears of new travel disruptions.[70][71]

3 May 2010

Height of the plume reported at 5–5.5 km (16,000–18,000 ft) altitude heading to south-east direction and visible from 200 km distance away from the eruption site. Scientists at eruption site experienced discomfort due to erupting gas. Tremor levels have intensified. Overall activity is similar to the day before.[72] Due to wind direction resulting in renewed emergence of volcanic ash, the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) closed the airspace over the Outer Hebrides which cancelled flight operations at Stornoway, Barra and Benbecula.

4 May 2010

Plume observed at 5.8–6 km (19,000–20,000 ft) height, heading at south east direction and visible up to 300–400 km distance from the eruption site. Tremor levels decreased to a similar level as on 18 April 2010. Several earthquakes were detected beneath Eyjafjallajökull at 14–20 km depth. More explosive activity and ash production reported than was observed in the day before. Progression of the lava seems to be slower.[73] Disruption to aviation continued in Ireland and United Kingdom: from 07:00 to 13:00, Shannon and Dublin ceased flights due to the Irish Aviation Authority (IAA) imposing a no-fly zone with a 60-mile buffer over Ireland. Northern Ireland and parts of Scotland are also under a no-fly zone issued by the Civil Aviation Authority; however, flights over Ireland to or from the UK or Europe were allowed to continue.[74]

5 & 6 May 2010

Ash eruptions from the volcano on the 6 May 2010.

IMO stated that the volcano had entered a new phase with a shift back from lava to more ash production.[75] An increase in explosive activity and considerable ash fall out reported at a distance 65–70 km (40–43 mi) from the eruption site. Plumes observed by radar at 5.5–6.5 km (18,000–21,000 ft) height (above sea level) according to IMO's weather radar and have reached above 9 km (30,000 ft) level.[76] Increased seismic activity since 3 May 2010 indicates that "new" magma is intruding into the magma conduit causing a difference in pressure at the surface. The IMO anticipated that the eruption will continue at full force in the next days. The ash cloud moved to south westerly direction and remained lying off the west of Ireland resulting in no flight restrictions within UK.[77][78]

7 May 2010

The eruption is still in a strong explosive phase although its explosive activity has decreased compared to 6 May 2010. The ash plume is rising to a lower altitude and is lighter in colour, but there are still no signs that the eruption is ending.[79][80] In southern Iceland, extensive ash fall resulted in the closure of schools and the Environment Agency of Iceland warned that air pollution due to ash fall the previous day (6 May 2010) was higher than ever measured in Iceland before and is above the health protection limit. Consequently, people living in areas subject to ash fall were told to stay inside their homes.[81]

8 & 9 May 2010

An ash cloud stretching 1,200-mile (2,000-kilometer) from Iceland to northern Spain is causing disruption and delays to transatlantic flights. Flights had to be rerouted north over Greenland or south around Spain to avoid the ash cloud. [82]. European air traffic faced disruptions over the weekend of 8th & 9th May 2010 in several countries including Ireland, Spain, France and Portugal. [83] Having reopened 19 airports in the north of Spain on 8th May 2010, Spanish Air Traffic Control was forced to reclose 7 airports at 15:00 GMT on 9 May 2010.

10 May 2010

Most European airports affected by the weekend closures reopened, apart from a few in Portuguese controlled airspace (The Azores and the Madeira Islands) and Iceland. [84].

Volume of erupted material and magma discharge

The Institute of Earth Sciences (IES) made a preliminary estimate of erupted material in the first three days of the eruption on 14 April 2010 at Eyjafjallajökull. The erupted products are fragmented material, the majority fine-grained airborne tephra. Eruptive products can be split into three categories along with preliminary estimated erupted volumes:

  1. Material (tephra) in the ice cauldrons around the volcanic vents: 30 million cubic metres (39,000,000 cu yd)
  2. Tephra filling the glacial lagoon of Gígjökulslón, carried by floods down the outlet glacier Gígjökull: 10 million cubic metres (13,000,000 cu yd)
  3. Airborne tephra that has been carried to the east and south of the volcano. Uncompacted tephra fallout from eruption plume: 100 million cubic metres (130,000,000 cu yd)

Total: 140 million cubic metres (180,000,000 cu yd) which corresponds to some 70–80 million cubic metres (92,000,000–105,000,000 cu yd) of magma. The many averages were too bug to see pie and thats why lollie pops were invented by the USA i thnk thats why we stared making cookie magma discharge rate is about 300 cubic metres per second (11,000 cu ft/s) or 750 t/s. This is 10–20 times the average discharge rate in the preceding flank eruption at Fimmvörðuháls.(First Eruption on 20 March 2010).[85]

The IES updated the eruption flow rate on 21 April 2010 to estimation of less than 30 cubic metres per second (1,100 cu ft/s) of magma, or 75 tonnes/s, with a large uncertainty. IES also noted that the eruption continue with less explosive activity.[58]

Effects of the ash plume on air travel

Main article: Air travel disruption after the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption

Volcanic ash is a major hazard to aircraft.[86] Smoke and ash from eruptions reduce visibility for visual navigation, and microscopic debris in the ash can sandblast windscreens and melt in the heat of aircraft turbine engines, damaging engines and making them shut down.[42][86] Many flights within, to, and from Europe were cancelled following the 14 April 2010 eruption, and although no commercial aircraft were damaged, the engines of some military aircraft were harmed.[87][88] The presence and location of the plume depends upon the state of the eruption and the winds. While some ash fell on uninhabited areas in Iceland, most had been carried by westerly winds resulting in the shut down of a large air space over Europe. The shut down had a knock on impact on the economy and cultural events across Europe.

Ash cloud maps

Current forecasts are updated at the London Volcanic Ash Advisory Centre's website (Met Office, UK)

  • Photograph from satellite Aqua showing the ash plume over North Atlantic at 13:30 GMT on 15 April
    Photograph from satellite Aqua showing the ash plume over North Atlantic at 13:30 GMT on 15 April
  • Ash plume over the North Atlantic on 19 April 2010
    Ash plume over the North Atlantic on 19 April 2010
  • Depiction of the estimated ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 14 April 2010.
    Depiction of the estimated ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 14 April 2010.
  • The estimated ash cloud at 18:00 GMT on 15 April.
    The estimated ash cloud at 18:00 GMT on 15 April.
  • Depiction of the estimated ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 15 April 2010.
    Depiction of the estimated ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 15 April 2010.
  • Depiction of the estimated ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 16 April 2010.
    Depiction of the estimated ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 16 April 2010.
  • Depiction of the estimated ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 17 April 2010.
    Depiction of the estimated ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 17 April 2010.
  • Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 17 April 2010.
    Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 17 April 2010.
  • Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 18 April 2010.
    Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 18 April 2010.
  • Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 19 April 2010.
    Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 19 April 2010.
  • Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 20 April 2010.
    Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 20 April 2010.
  • Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 21 April 2010.
    Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 21 April 2010.
  • Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 22 April 2010.
    Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 22 April 2010.
  • Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 23 April 2010.
    Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 23 April 2010.
  • Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 24 April 2010.
    Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 24 April 2010.
  • Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 25 April 2010.
    Approximate depiction of the ash cloud at 18:00 UTC on 25 April 2010.
  • Composite map spanning 14-25 April 2010.
    Composite map spanning 14-25 April 2010.

Short- and long-term weather and environmental effects

At the mouth of the crater, the gases, ejecta, and volcanic plume have created a rare weather phenomenon known as volcanic lightning (or a "dirty thunderstorm").[89] When rocks and other ejecta collide with one another, it creates static electricity. This, coupled with the abundant amount of water-ice located at the summit, aids in the creation of lightning.[90]

High-fluoride Hekla eruptions pose a threat to foraging livestock, especially sheep. Fluoride poisoning can start in sheep at a diet with fluorine content of 25 ppm. At 250 ppm, death can occur within a few days.[39] In 1783, 79 per cent of the Icelandic sheep stock were killed, probably as a result of fluorosis caused by the eruption of Laki.[91] The effect also spread beyond Iceland.[92] Ash from the current Eyjafjallajökull eruption contains one third the concentration typical in Hekla eruptions, with a mean value of 104 milligrams of fluoride per kilogram of ash. Large-scale release of sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere also poses a potential health risk, especially to people with pre-existing breathing disorders.

While it is suspected that major volcanic eruptions that coincide with cyclic solar minimum activity[93][94] could produce temporary global cooling or reduction in global temperature,[95][96] it is noted[97] that coincidentally the earth-facing side of the Sun was mostly blank with no sun spots since the day of 2nd eruption on 14 April 2010 until 29 April 2010.[98] Although the current unusually long solar minimum came to a close earlier this year, the current cycle may witness unusual weak solar maximum. Other research links volcanic eruptions including recent Icelandic activity to the solar cycle.[99] Most consider[100] the climate anomaly of the Year Without A Summer 1816 to have been caused by a combination of a historic low in solar activity with a volcanic winter event; the latter caused by a succession of major volcanic eruptions capped off by the Mount Tambora eruption of 1815, the largest known eruption in over 1,600 years.[101][102][103][104][105][106] One proposed volcanic winter happened c. 70,000 years ago following the supereruption of Lake Toba on Sumatra island in Indonesia.[107]

As of 15 April, the eruption was not large enough to have an effect on global temperatures like that of Mount Pinatubo and other major past volcanic eruptions.[108][109] One previous related sequence of eruptions of this volcano, beginning in 1821 is recorded as having lasted for over two years, however no single set of major eruptions is known to have lasted more than 'several days'. Should the eruption continue for a sufficient length of time at its current intensity, the potential remains for a temporary global cooling effect. By analogy, the Laki eruption has been linked with extreme weather events from severe hailstorms in Great Britain to the Mississippi River freezing at New Orleans.[110][111] Sulfate aerosols that reach the stratosphere catalyze the production of chlorine monoxide (ClO), which destroys ozone (O3). In the upper troposphere, the same aerosols become nuclei for cirrus clouds, which increase the Earth's albedo and thus alter its radiation balance.[112] Several eruptions during the past century have caused a decline in the average temperature at the Earth's surface of up to half a degree Celsius for periods of one to three years.[112][113]

Comparison to other recent eruptions

The recent eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull and the largest ash plume associated with the second eruption were not unparalleled in volume and abundance; their location was particular because it affected air travel across Europe. Neither eruption was unusually powerful.[114] Other notable volcanic eruptions in recent years include the eruption of Mount Pinatubo of 1991 of VEI 6[2]. This eruption lasted 8 days, from 7 June – 15 June of that year, with an ash cloud that would have required additional days to dissipate,[115] and resulted in worldwide abnormal weather and decrease in global temperature over the next few years. It is considered 10 times larger[116] than the Mount St. Helens which lasted less than 24 hours.[117] However, the second eruption of Eyjafjallajökull has already lasted longer than that of Mount Pinatubo.

Since the 2nd eruption on 14 April 2010, and according to the SI / USGS Weekly Volcanic Activity Report[118] (14–20 April 2010) by the Smithsonian's Global Volcanism Program the eruption at Eyjafjallajökull coincided with eruptions at a number of other volcanoes, including new activity at:

  1. Barren Island, Andaman, India plume rose to an altitude of 2.4 kilometres (7,900 ft) and drifting 55 kilometres (34 mi) to the north on 19 April 2010.
  2. Gaua, Banks Islands, SW Pacific, Vanuatu ash plumes reported from during 13–16 and 19–21 April 2010. The plumes regularly rose to altitudes of 3 kilometres (9,800 ft). A spokesman for the Vanuatu Disaster Management Office described the activity as "huge, dark plumes" in an AAP news report.

See also

References

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