Zebu: Difference between revisions

Zebu
Scientific classification ; (Disputed, see § Taxonomy and name)
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Mammalia
Order:	Artiodactyla
Family:	Bovidae
Subfamily:	Bovinae
Genus:	Bos
Species:	B. taurus
Subspecies:	B. t. indicus
Trinomial name
	Bos taurus indicus; Linnaeus, 1758
Synonyms
	Bos indicus Linnaeus, 1758 ; Bos taurus Linnaeus, 1758 Bos taurus taurus Linnaeus, 1758 ; Bos taurus africanus Kerr, 1792 ; Bos africanus Kerr, 1792 ; Bos domesticus Erxleben, 1777 ; Bos zebu Boddaert, 1785 ; Bos longifrons R. Owen, 1844 ; Bos sanga Fitzinger, 1860 ; ; (incomplete list)

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The zebu (/ˈziːb(j)uː, ˈzeɪbuː/; Bos indicus or Bos taurus indicus), sometimes known in the plural as indicine cattle or humped cattle, is a species or subspecies of domestic cattle originating in South Asia.^[4] Zebu, like many Sanga cattle breeds, differs from taurine cattle by a fatty hump on their shoulders, a large dewlap, and sometimes drooping ears. They are well adapted to withstanding high temperatures and are farmed throughout the Tropics.

Zebu are used as draught and riding animals, dairy cattle and beef cattle, as well as for byproducts such as hides and dung for fuel and manure. Some small breeds such as the miniature zebu are also kept as pets.

In some regions, such as parts of India, zebu and other cattle have significant religious meaning.

Taxonomy and name

Both scientific names Bos taurus and Bos indicus were introduced by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, with the latter used to describe humped cattle in China.^[3]

The zebu was classified as a distinct species by Juliet Clutton-Brock in 1999,^[5] but as a subspecies of the domestic cattle, Bos taurus indicus, by both Clutton-Brock and Colin Groves in 2004 and by Peter Grubb in 2005.^[6]^[7] In 2011, Groves and Grubb classified it as a distinct species again.^[8]^{[failed verification]}

The American Society of Mammalogists considers it part of the species Bos taurus in analogy to Sanga cattle (Bos taurus africanus Kerr, 1792).^[2] The ICZN has not yet published a ruling on the classification of domestic derivatives and no scientific body advocates the abolition of the Biological Species Concept for domestic animals.

Origin

Zebu cattle were found to derive from the Indian form of aurochs and have first been domesticated between 7,000 and 6,000 YBP at Mehrgarh, present-day Pakistan, by people linked to or coming from Mesopotamia.^[9]^[10]^[11]^[12] Indicine cattle farming is understood to have spread across much of South Asia by 2000 BCE.

Its wild ancestor, the Indian aurochs, became extinct during the Indus Valley civilisation likely due to habitat loss, caused by expanding pastoralism and interbreeding with domestic zebu.^[4]^[13] Its latest remaiens ever found were dated to 3,800 YBP, making it the first of the three aurochs subspecies to die out.^[14]^[15]^[16]

Archaeological evidence including depictions on pottery and rocks suggests that humped cattle likely imported from the Near East was present in Egypt around 4,000 YBP. Its first appearance in the Subsahara is dated to after 700 AD and it was introduced to the Horn of Africa around 1000.^[17]

Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all the zebu Y chromosome haplotype groups are found in three different lineages: Y3A, the most predominant and cosmopolitan lineage; Y3B, only observed in West Africa; and Y3C, predominant in south and northeast India.^[18]

Characteristics

Zebu, but also many Sanga cattle have humps on the shoulders, large dewlaps and droopy ears.^[19] Sanga cattle can be distinguished from purebred zebu by their having smaller humps located farther forward.^{[citation needed]}

Compared to taurine cattle, zebus are well adapted to the hot savanna and steppe environments. These adaptations result in higher tolerance for drought, heat and sunlight exposure.^[20] Unlike many Sanga cattle however, zebu does not exhibit trypanotolerance, making it susceptible to nagana,^[21]^[22] as evidenced by the pattern of zebu introgression into African cattle.^[21]

Furthermore, another important characteristic of the Zebu is that they are able to defend against parasites and diseases quite well^{[clarification needed]}.^[23]

Reproduction

Zebu are generally mature enough to give birth when they are 29 months old. This is based on the development of their bodies to withstand the strain of carrying and lactation. Early reproduction can place too much stress on the body and possibly shorten lifespans. Carrying time of the calf averages at 285 days, but varies depending on the age and nutrition of the mother. The sex of the calf may also affect the carrying time, as male calves are carried for a longer period than females. Location, breed, body weight, and season affect the overall health of the animal and in return may also affect the carrying period.^[20]

Behavior

Studies on the natural weaning of zebu cattle have shown that the cow weans her calves over a 2-week period, but after that, she continues to show strong affiliatory behavior with her offspring and preferentially chooses them for grooming and as grazing partners for at least 4–5 years.^[24]

Breeds and hybrids

Zebu are very common in much of Asia, including Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bangladesh and China. In Asia, taurine cattle are mainly found in the northern regions such as Japan, Korea, northern China and Mongolia. In China, taurine cattle are most common in northern breeds, zebu more common in southern breeds, with hybrids in between.^[25]^[26]

Zebu were imported to Africa since the Bronze Age and crossed with taurine cattle. Genetic analysis of African cattle found higher proportions of zebu genes along the East African coast, with hardly any taurine component on Madagascar, either implying that the method of dispersal was cattle transported by ship or the zebu may have reached East Africa via the coastal route (via Pakistan, Iran, Yemen).

Partial resistance to rinderpest caused a further increase of zebu breeds in Africa.^{[citation needed]}

Geneticists at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Nairobi, Kenya and in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia discovered that cattle had been domesticated in Africa independently of domestication in the Near East. They concluded that the southern African cattle populations derive originally from East Africa rather than from a southbound migration of taurine cattle.^[27] The results are inconclusive as to whether domestication occurred first in Africa or the Near East.^[28]

Other scientists^[who?] consider the African Sanga cattle breeds to have originated from hybridization of zebu with indigenous African humpless cattle^{[clarification needed]} leading to the Afrikaner, Red Fulani, Ankole, Boran and many other breeds.

Some 75 breeds of zebu are known, split about evenly between African and Indian breeds.

List of widely distributed zebu breeds^{[citation needed]}
Gyr Kankrej and Guzerat Indo-Brazilian Brahman Sibi Bhagnari White Nukra Acchai^[29] Cholistani Dhanni Lohani Nelore Ongole Sahiwal Red Sindhi Butana and Kenana Baggara Tharparkar Kangayam Southern Yellow Kedah-Kelantan Local Indian Dairy (LID)

Other breeds of zebu are quite local, like the Hariana from Haryana, Punjab^[30] or the Rath from Alwar district, Rajasthan.^[31]

Zebu, which are adapted to high temperatures,^[32] were imported into Brazil in the early 20th century. Their importation marked a change in cattle ranching in Brazil as they were considered "ecological" since they could graze on natural grasses^{[Is there a ruminant that can't? clarification needed]} and their meat was lean and without chemical residues^{[definition needed]}.^[33]

In the early 20th century in Brazil, Zebu were crossbred with Charolais cattle, a European taurine breed. The resulting breed, 63% Charolais and 37% zebu, is called the Canchim. It has a better meat quality than the zebu and better heat resistance than European cattle. The zebu breeds used were primarily Indo-Brazilian with some Nelore and Guzerat. Another Charolais cross-breed with Brahmans is called Australian Charbray and is recognised as a breed in some countries.

From the 1960s onwards, Nelore which is an off breed of Ongole Cattle became the primary breed of cattle in Brazil because of its hardiness, heat-resistance, and because it thrives on poor-quality forage and breeds easily, with the calves rarely requiring human intervention to survive. Currently more than 80% of beef cattle in Brazil (approximately 167,000,000 animals) are either purebred or hybrid Ongole Cattle which is originated from Ongle region of Andhra Pradesh.

Uses

Draft zebu pulling a cart in Mumbai, India

Zebu are used as draught and riding animals, beef cattle, dairy cattle, as well as for byproducts such as hides, dung for fuel and manure, and horn for knife handles and the like. Zebu, mostly miniature zebu, are kept as pets.^[34] In India, the number of draft cattle in 1998 was estimated at 65.7 million head.^[35]

Zebu cows commonly have low production of milk. They do not produce milk until maturation later in their lives and do not produce much. When zebus are crossed with taurine cattle, milk production generally increases.^[20]

In 1999, researchers at Texas A&M University successfully cloned a zebu.^[36]

Jallikattu in India is a bull taming sport differing from European bullfighting in that humans are unarmed and the bulls are not killed.

Hindu tradition

Zebu are venerated within the Hindu religion of India. In the Vedic period they were a symbol of plenty.^[37]^: 130 In later times they gradually acquired their present status. According to the Mahabharata, they are to be treated with the same respect 'as one's mother'.^[38] In the middle of the first millennium, the consumption of beef began to be disfavoured by lawgivers.^[37]^: 144 Cows appear in numerous stories from the Vedas and Puranas. The deity Krishna was brought up in a family of cowherders, and given the name Govinda (protector of the cows). Also, Shiva is traditionally said to ride on the back of a bull named Nandi.

Milk and milk products were used in Vedic rituals.^[37]^: 130 In the postvedic period products of the cow—milk, curd, ghee, but also cow dung and urine (gomutra), or the combination of these five (panchagavya)—began to assume an increasingly important role in ritual purification and expiation.^[37]^{: 130–131}

References

^ International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1922). "Opinion 75. Twenty-Seven Generic Names of Protozoa, Vermes, Pisces, Reptilia and Mammalia Included in the Official List of Zoological Names". Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. 73 (1): 35–37.
^ ^a ^b ^c
American Society of Mammalogists (2021). "Bos taurus". ASM Mammal Diversity Database. [Bos taurus] includes indicus, which is often treated as a distinct species; because both domestic forms originate from a single wild species [Bos primigenius], they are considered a single taxon here {{cite journal}}: |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help), citing:
- Gentry, Anthea; Clutton-Brock, Juliet; Groves, Colin P (2004-05-01). "The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science. 31 (5): 645–651. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006. and
- Groves, Colin P.; Grubb, Peter (2011). Ungulate taxonomy. Baltimore (Md.): J. Hopkins university press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0093-8.
^ ^a ^b Linnaeus, C. (1758). "Bos indicus". Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (Tenth reformed ed.). Holmiae: Laurentii Salvii. p. 71.
^ ^a ^b Chen, Shanyuan; Lin, Bang-Zhong; Baig, Mumtaz; Mitra, Bikash; Lopes, Ricardo J.; Santos, António M.; Magee, David A.; Azevedo, Marisa; Tarroso, Pedro; Sasazaki, Shinji; Ostrowski, Stephane (2010-01-01). "Zebu Cattle Are an Exclusive Legacy of the South Asia Neolithic". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 27 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp213. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 19770222.
^ Clutton-Brock, J. (1999) [1987]. "Asiatic cattle". A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals (Second ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-521-63495-3. OCLC 39786571.
^ Gentry, A.; Clutton-Brock, J. & Groves, C.P. (2004). "The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science. 31 (5): 645–651. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006.
^ Grubb, P. (2005). "Subspecies Bos taurus indicus". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 645–646. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
^ Groves, C. & Grubb, P. (2011). "Domestication". Ungulate taxonomy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 9781421400938.
^ Van Vuure, C. (2005). Retracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology and Ecology of an Extinct Wild Ox. Sofia: Pensoft Publishers. ISBN 978-954-642-235-4.
^ Bradley, D G; MacHugh, D E; Cunningham, P; Loftus, R T (1996-05-14). "Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 93 (10): 5131–5135. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.10.5131.
^ Pérez-Pardal, Lucía; Sánchez-Gracia, Alejandro; Álvarez, Isabel; Traoré, Amadou; Ferraz, J. Bento S.; Fernández, Iván; Costa, Vânia; Chen, Shanyuan; Tapio, Miika; Cantet, Rodolfo J. C.; Patel, Ajita; Meadow, Richard H.; Marshall, Fiona B.; Beja-Pereira, Albano; Goyache, Félix (2018-12-21). "Legacies of domestication, trade and herder mobility shape extant male zebu cattle diversity in South Asia and Africa". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 18027. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36444-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6303292. PMID 30575786.
^ Gangal, Kavita; Sarson, Graeme R.; Shukurov, Anvar (7 May 2014). "The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia". PLOS ONE. 9 (5): e95714. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0095714. ISSN 1932-6203.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)
^ Rangarajan, M. (2001). India's Wildlife History. Delhi, India: Permanent Black. p. 4. ISBN 978-81-7824-140-1.
^ Turvey, Samuel T.; Sathe, Vijay; Crees, Jennifer J.; Jukar, Advait M.; Chakraborty, Prateek; Lister, Adrian M. (January 2021). "Late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in India: How much do we know?" (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 252: 106740. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106740. S2CID 234265221.
^ "Bos primigenius: Tikhonov, A.: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T136721A4332142". International Union for Conservation of Nature. 30 June 2008. doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2008.rlts.t136721a4332142.en. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
^ Chen et al., 2010: "Zebu cattle are an exclusive legacy of the South Asia Neolithic." Molecular biology and evolution, 27(1), 1-6. https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/27/1/1/1127118 (in Supplementary Data)
^ Marshall, F. (1989). "Rethinking the Role of Bos indicus in Sub-Sahara Africa". Current Anthropology. 30 (2): 235–240. doi:10.1086/203737. JSTOR 2743556. S2CID 143063029.
^ Pérez-Pardal, L.; Sánchez-Gracia, A.; Álvarez, I.; Traoré, A.; Ferraz, J.B.S.; Fernández, I.; Costa, V.; Chen, S.; Tapio, M.; Cantet, R.J. & Patel, A. (2018). "Legacies of domestication, trade and herder mobility shape extant male zebu cattle diversity in South Asia and Africa". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 18027. Bibcode:2018NatSR...818027P. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36444-7. JSTOR 18027. PMC 6303292. PMID 30575786.
^ "Definition: Zebu". Online Medical Dictionary. Retrieved 2007-09-08.
^ ^a ^b ^c Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. (1989). A Review of a Reproductive Performance of Female Bos Indicus (zebu) Cattle. ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD). ISBN 9789290530992.
^ ^a ^b MacHugh, D.E. (1997). "Microsatellite DNA Variation and the evolution, domestication and phylogeography of Taurine and Zebu Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus)". Genetics. 146 (3): 1071–1086. doi:10.1093/genetics/146.3.1071. PMC 1208036. PMID 9215909.
^ Makina, S.O.; Whitacre, L.K.; Decker, J.E.; Taylor, J.F.; MacNeil, M.D.; Scholtz, M.M.; van Marle-Köster, E.; Muchadeyi, F.C.; Makgahlela, M.L. & Maiwashe, A. (2016). "Insight into the genetic composition of South African Sanga cattle using SNP data from cattle breeds worldwide". Genetics Selection Evolution. 48 (1): 88. doi:10.1186/s12711-016-0266-1. PMC 5111355. PMID 27846793.
^ Utsunomiya, Y.T., Milanesi, M., Fortes, M.R.S., Porto-Neto, L.R., Utsunomiya, A.T.H., Silva, M.V.G.B., Garcia, J.F. and Ajmone-Marsan, P. (2019), Genomic clues of the evolutionary history of Bos indicus cattle. Anim Genet, 50: 557-568.
^ Reinhardt, V. & Reinhardt, A. (1981). "Cohesive relationships in a cattle herd (Bos indicus)". Behaviour. 77 (3): 121–150. doi:10.1163/156853981X00194.
^ Cai, Dawei; Sun, Yang; Tang, Zhuowei; Hu, Songmei; Li, Wenying; Zhao, Xingbo; Xiang, Hai; Zhou, Hui (2014-01-01). "The origins of Chinese domestic cattle as revealed by ancient DNA analysis". Journal of Archaeological Science. 41: 423–434. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2013.09.003. ISSN 0305-4403.
^ Komosińska, Halina (2002). Ssaki kopytne : przewodnik (in Polish). Elżbieta Podsiadło. Warszawa: Wydaw. Naukowe PWN. ISBN 83-01-13806-8. OCLC 749423644.
^ Hanotte, O et al (2002) REPORT African Pastoralism: Genetic Imprints of Origins and Migrations Science 12 Apr 2002 Vol. 296 Issue 5566 pp 336-339
^ Stokstad, E (2002) Archaeology: Early cowboys herded cattle in Africa Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 04/2002, Volume 296 Issue 5566
^ "Pak Dairy Info - Achi Breed".
^ Porter, V. (1991). "Hariana — India: Haryana, eastern Punjab". Cattle: A Handbook to the Breeds of the World. London: Helm. p. 245. ISBN 0-8160-2640-8.
^ Porter, V. (1991). "Rath — India: Alwar and eastern Rajasthan". Cattle: A Handbook to the Breeds of the World. London: Helm. p. 246. ISBN 0-8160-2640-8.
^ "Food Ark - Cattle Breeds - Pictures, More From National Geographic Magazine". Ngm.nationalgeographic.com. 2013-04-25. Retrieved 2013-05-30.
^ Wilcox, R.W. (2004). "Zebu's Elbows: Cattle Breeding the Environment in Central Brazil, 1890-1960". In Brannstrom, C. (ed.). Territories, commodities, and knowledges: Latin American Environmental History in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries. London: Institute for the Study of the Americas. pp. 218–246. ISBN 9781900039574.
^ "One of the Oldest Cattle Breeds". American Miniature Zebu Association. Retrieved 2 December 2019.
^ Phaniraja, K.L. & Panchasara, H.H. (2009). "Indian draught animals power". Veterinary World. 2 (10): 404–407.
^ "Cloning gives second chance for bull". BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. 1999-09-03. Retrieved 2008-10-11.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Jha, D. N. (2002). The myth of the holy cow. London: Verso. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-85984-676-6.
^ "Mahabharata, Book 13-Anusasana Parva, Section LXXVI". Sacred-texts.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2013. Retrieved 15 October 2013.

External links

[1] International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (1922). "Opinion 75. Twenty-Seven Generic Names of Protozoa, Vermes, Pisces, Reptilia and Mammalia Included in the Official List of Zoological Names". Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections. 73 (1): 35–37.

[ASM21-2] American Society of Mammalogists (2021). "Bos taurus". ASM Mammal Diversity Database. [Bos taurus] includes indicus, which is often treated as a distinct species; because both domestic forms originate from a single wild species [Bos primigenius], they are considered a single taxon here {{cite journal}}: |archive-url= requires |archive-date= (help), citing:
Gentry, Anthea; Clutton-Brock, Juliet; Groves, Colin P (2004-05-01). "The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science. 31 (5): 645–651. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006. and
Groves, Colin P.; Grubb, Peter (2011). Ungulate taxonomy. Baltimore (Md.): J. Hopkins university press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0093-8.

[3] Gentry, Anthea; Clutton-Brock, Juliet; Groves, Colin P (2004-05-01). "The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science. 31 (5): 645–651. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006. and

[4] Groves, Colin P.; Grubb, Peter (2011). Ungulate taxonomy. Baltimore (Md.): J. Hopkins university press. ISBN 978-1-4214-0093-8.

[Linnaeus-3] Linnaeus, C. (1758). "Bos indicus". Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (Tenth reformed ed.). Holmiae: Laurentii Salvii. p. 71.

[Chen10-4] Chen, Shanyuan; Lin, Bang-Zhong; Baig, Mumtaz; Mitra, Bikash; Lopes, Ricardo J.; Santos, António M.; Magee, David A.; Azevedo, Marisa; Tarroso, Pedro; Sasazaki, Shinji; Ostrowski, Stephane (2010-01-01). "Zebu Cattle Are an Exclusive Legacy of the South Asia Neolithic". Molecular Biology and Evolution. 27 (1): 1–6. doi:10.1093/molbev/msp213. ISSN 0737-4038. PMID 19770222.

[Clutton-Brock1999-5] Clutton-Brock, J. (1999) [1987]. "Asiatic cattle". A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals (Second ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 85. ISBN 978-0-521-63495-3. OCLC 39786571.

[6] Gentry, A.; Clutton-Brock, J. & Groves, C.P. (2004). "The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives". Journal of Archaeological Science. 31 (5): 645–651. doi:10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006.

[msw3-7] Grubb, P. (2005). "Subspecies Bos taurus indicus". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 645–646. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.

[8] Groves, C. & Grubb, P. (2011). "Domestication". Ungulate taxonomy. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 8–9. ISBN 9781421400938.

[Vuure-9] Van Vuure, C. (2005). Retracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology and Ecology of an Extinct Wild Ox. Sofia: Pensoft Publishers. ISBN 978-954-642-235-4.

[10] Bradley, D G; MacHugh, D E; Cunningham, P; Loftus, R T (1996-05-14). "Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 93 (10): 5131–5135. doi:10.1073/pnas.93.10.5131.

[11] Pérez-Pardal, Lucía; Sánchez-Gracia, Alejandro; Álvarez, Isabel; Traoré, Amadou; Ferraz, J. Bento S.; Fernández, Iván; Costa, Vânia; Chen, Shanyuan; Tapio, Miika; Cantet, Rodolfo J. C.; Patel, Ajita; Meadow, Richard H.; Marshall, Fiona B.; Beja-Pereira, Albano; Goyache, Félix (2018-12-21). "Legacies of domestication, trade and herder mobility shape extant male zebu cattle diversity in South Asia and Africa". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 18027. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36444-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 6303292. PMID 30575786.

[Gangal_14-12] Gangal, Kavita; Sarson, Graeme R.; Shukurov, Anvar (7 May 2014). "The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia". PLOS ONE. 9 (5): e95714. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0095714. ISSN 1932-6203.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: unflagged free DOI (link)

[IWH2-13] Rangarajan, M. (2001). India's Wildlife History. Delhi, India: Permanent Black. p. 4. ISBN 978-81-7824-140-1.

[14] Turvey, Samuel T.; Sathe, Vijay; Crees, Jennifer J.; Jukar, Advait M.; Chakraborty, Prateek; Lister, Adrian M. (January 2021). "Late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in India: How much do we know?" (PDF). Quaternary Science Reviews. 252: 106740. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106740. S2CID 234265221.

[15] "Bos primigenius: Tikhonov, A.: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T136721A4332142". International Union for Conservation of Nature. 30 June 2008. doi:10.2305/iucn.uk.2008.rlts.t136721a4332142.en. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)

[Chen_et_al.,_2010-16] Chen et al., 2010: "Zebu cattle are an exclusive legacy of the South Asia Neolithic." Molecular biology and evolution, 27(1), 1-6. https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/27/1/1/1127118 (in Supplementary Data)

[17] Marshall, F. (1989). "Rethinking the Role of Bos indicus in Sub-Sahara Africa". Current Anthropology. 30 (2): 235–240. doi:10.1086/203737. JSTOR 2743556. S2CID 143063029.

[18] Pérez-Pardal, L.; Sánchez-Gracia, A.; Álvarez, I.; Traoré, A.; Ferraz, J.B.S.; Fernández, I.; Costa, V.; Chen, S.; Tapio, M.; Cantet, R.J. & Patel, A. (2018). "Legacies of domestication, trade and herder mobility shape extant male zebu cattle diversity in South Asia and Africa". Scientific Reports. 8 (1): 18027. Bibcode:2018NatSR...818027P. doi:10.1038/s41598-018-36444-7. JSTOR 18027. PMC 6303292. PMID 30575786.

[19] "Definition: Zebu". Online Medical Dictionary. Retrieved 2007-09-08.

[Mukasa-Mugerwa-20] Mukasa-Mugerwa, E. (1989). A Review of a Reproductive Performance of Female Bos Indicus (zebu) Cattle. ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD). ISBN 9789290530992.

[MacHugh-et-al-1997-21] MacHugh, D.E. (1997). "Microsatellite DNA Variation and the evolution, domestication and phylogeography of Taurine and Zebu Cattle (Bos taurus and Bos indicus)". Genetics. 146 (3): 1071–1086. doi:10.1093/genetics/146.3.1071. PMC 1208036. PMID 9215909.

[Makina-et-al-2016-22] Makina, S.O.; Whitacre, L.K.; Decker, J.E.; Taylor, J.F.; MacNeil, M.D.; Scholtz, M.M.; van Marle-Köster, E.; Muchadeyi, F.C.; Makgahlela, M.L. & Maiwashe, A. (2016). "Insight into the genetic composition of South African Sanga cattle using SNP data from cattle breeds worldwide". Genetics Selection Evolution. 48 (1): 88. doi:10.1186/s12711-016-0266-1. PMC 5111355. PMID 27846793.

[23] Utsunomiya, Y.T., Milanesi, M., Fortes, M.R.S., Porto-Neto, L.R., Utsunomiya, A.T.H., Silva, M.V.G.B., Garcia, J.F. and Ajmone-Marsan, P. (2019), Genomic clues of the evolutionary history of Bos indicus cattle. Anim Genet, 50: 557-568.

[24] Reinhardt, V. & Reinhardt, A. (1981). "Cohesive relationships in a cattle herd (Bos indicus)". Behaviour. 77 (3): 121–150. doi:10.1163/156853981X00194.

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@@ Line 7: / Line 7: @@
 | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]]<ref name="ASM21" />
 | species = taurus
-| classification_status = Disputed<ref>{{cite journal |author1=International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature |title=Opinion 75. Twenty-Seven Generic Names of Protozoa, Vermes, Pisces, Reptilia and Mammalia Included in the Official List of Zoological Names |journal=[[Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections]] |date=1922 |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=35–37 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8910949}}</ref>
+| classification_status = Disputed,<ref>{{cite journal |author1=International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature |title=Opinion 75. Twenty-Seven Generic Names of Protozoa, Vermes, Pisces, Reptilia and Mammalia Included in the Official List of Zoological Names |journal=[[Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections]] |date=1922 |volume=73 |issue=1 |pages=35–37 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/8910949}}</ref> see {{slink ||Taxonomy and name}}
-| synonyms = * ''Bos indicus'' {{small|Linnaeus,&nbsp;1758}}
+| synonyms = {{Genus list
+ | Bos indicus |Linnaeus, 1758
-| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ASM21" /><ref name=Linnaeus>{{Cite book |author=Linnaeus, C. |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |location=Holmiae |publisher=Laurentii Salvii |date=1758 |page=71 |chapter=''Bos indicus'' |language=la |volume=1 |edition=Tenth reformed |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000798865/page/72/mode/1up}}</ref>
+ | ''[[Bos taurus]]'' |Linnaeus, 1758 {{Genus list
+  | ''[[Bos taurus taurus]]'' |Linnaeus, 1758
+  | ''[[Bos taurus africanus]]'' |[[Robert Kerr (writer) |Kerr]], 1792
+  | Bos africanus |Kerr, 1792
+  | Bos domesticus |[[Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben |Erxleben]], 1777
+  | Bos zebu |[[Pieter Boddaert |Boddaert]], 1785
+  | ''[[Bos longifrons]]'' |[[Richard Owen (geologist) |R. Owen]], 1844
+  | Bos sanga |[[Leopold Fitzinger |Fitzinger]], 1860
+  }}
+ | incomplete = yes
+}}
+| synonyms_ref = <ref name="ASM21" /><ref name="Linnaeus">{{Cite book |author=Linnaeus, C. |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae: secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |location=Holmiae |publisher=Laurentii Salvii |date=1758 |page=71 |chapter=''Bos indicus'' |language=la |volume=1 |edition=Tenth reformed |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000798865/page/72/mode/1up}}</ref>
 }}
-The '''zebu''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|z|iː|b|(|j|)|uː|,_|ˈ|z|eː|b|uː}}; '''''Bos indicus''''' or '''''Bos taurus indicus'''''), sometimes known in the plural as '''indicine cattle''' or '''humped cattle''', is a [[species]] or [[subspecies]] of [[Bos taurus|domestic cattle]] originating in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Chen10">{{Cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Shanyuan|last2=Lin|first2=Bang-Zhong |last3=Baig |first3=Mumtaz |last4=Mitra |first4=Bikash |last5=Lopes |first5=Ricardo J. |last6=Santos|first6=António M.|last7=Magee|first7=David A. |last8=Azevedo |first8=Marisa |last9=Tarroso |first9=Pedro |last10=Sasazaki |first10=Shinji |last11=Ostrowski|first11=Stephane|date=2010-01-01|title=Zebu Cattle Are an Exclusive Legacy of the South Asia Neolithic|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1093/molbev/msp213|pmid=19770222|issn=0737-4038|doi-access=free}}</ref> Zebu are characterised by a fatty hump on their shoulders, a large [[dewlap]], and sometimes drooping ears. Various [[breed]]s in the [[Sanga cattle]] subspecies exhibit humps as well. They are well adapted to withstanding [[Tropical climate |high temperatures]], and are farmed throughout the [[Tropics|tropical]] countries, both as pure zebu and as [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s with [[taurine cattle]], the most prevalent [[Cattle#Taxonomy |domestic cattle subspecies]].
+The '''zebu''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|z|iː|b|(|j|)|uː|,_|ˈ|z|eː|b|uː}}; '''''Bos indicus''''' or '''''Bos taurus indicus'''''), sometimes known in the plural as '''indicine cattle''' or '''humped cattle''', is a [[species]] or [[subspecies]] of [[Bos taurus|domestic cattle]] originating in [[South Asia]].<ref name="Chen10">{{Cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Shanyuan|last2=Lin|first2=Bang-Zhong |last3=Baig |first3=Mumtaz |last4=Mitra |first4=Bikash |last5=Lopes |first5=Ricardo J. |last6=Santos|first6=António M.|last7=Magee|first7=David A. |last8=Azevedo |first8=Marisa |last9=Tarroso |first9=Pedro |last10=Sasazaki |first10=Shinji |last11=Ostrowski|first11=Stephane|date=2010-01-01|title=Zebu Cattle Are an Exclusive Legacy of the South Asia Neolithic|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution |volume=27|issue=1|pages=1–6|doi=10.1093/molbev/msp213|pmid=19770222|issn=0737-4038|doi-access=free}}</ref> Zebu, like many [[Sanga cattle]] breeds, differs from taurine cattle by a fatty hump on their shoulders, a large [[dewlap]], and sometimes drooping ears. They are well adapted to withstanding [[Tropical climate |high temperatures]] and are farmed throughout the [[Tropics]].
 Zebu are used as [[draught animal|draught]] and [[riding animal]]s, [[dairy cattle]] and [[beef cattle]], as well as for byproducts such as [[Hide (skin)|hide]]s and [[Feces|dung]] for [[fuel]] and [[manure]]. Some small breeds such as the [[Miniature Zebu|miniature zebu]] are also kept as [[Pet|pets]].
@@ Line 19: / Line 31: @@
 ==Taxonomy and name==
+Both [[scientific name]]s ''Bos taurus'' and ''Bos indicus'' were introduced by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1758, with the latter used to [[Species description |describe]] humped cattle in [[China proper |China]].<ref name=Linnaeus/>
-Both [[scientific name]]s ''Bos taurus'' and ''Bos indicus'' were introduced by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in 1758, with the latter used to [[Species description |describe]] humped cattle in [[China proper |China]].<ref name=Linnaeus/> The zebu was classified as a distinct [[species]] by [[Juliet Clutton-Brock]] in 1999,<ref name="Clutton-Brock1999">{{Cite book |title=A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals |last=Clutton-Brock |first=J. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-63495-3 |oclc=39786571 |orig-year=1987 |edition=Second |page=85 |chapter=Asiatic cattle |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgL-EbbB8a0C&pg=PA85}}</ref> but as a [[subspecies]] of the domestic [[cattle]], ''Bos taurus indicus'', by both Clutton-Brock and [[Colin Groves]] in 2004 and by [[Peter Grubb (zoologist)|Peter Grubb]] in 2005.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gentry, A. |author2=Clutton-Brock, J. |author-link2=Juliet Clutton-Brock |author3=Groves, C.P. |author-link3=Colin Groves |name-list-style=amp |date=2004 |title=The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=645–651 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222518224}}</ref><ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla |id=14200687 |pages=645–646 |heading=Subspecies ''Bos taurus indicus''}}</ref> In 2011, Groves and Grubb classified it as a distinct species again.<ref>{{cite book |first1=C. |last1=Groves |first2=P. |last2=Grubb |name-list-style=amp |year=2011 |title=Ungulate taxonomy |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |pages=8–9 |chapter=Domestication |isbn=9781421400938 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3uZtA1ZpTAC&pg=PA9}}</ref>{{fv|date=September 2023}}
+The zebu was classified as a distinct [[species]] by [[Juliet Clutton-Brock]] in 1999,<ref name="Clutton-Brock1999">{{Cite book |title=A Natural History of Domesticated Mammals |last=Clutton-Brock |first=J. |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, UK |date=1999 |isbn=978-0-521-63495-3 |oclc=39786571 |orig-year=1987 |edition=Second |page=85 |chapter=Asiatic cattle |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cgL-EbbB8a0C&pg=PA85}}</ref> but as a [[subspecies]] of the domestic [[cattle]], ''Bos taurus indicus'', by both Clutton-Brock and [[Colin Groves]] in 2004 and by [[Peter Grubb (zoologist)|Peter Grubb]] in 2005.<ref>{{cite journal |author1=Gentry, A. |author2=Clutton-Brock, J. |author-link2=Juliet Clutton-Brock |author3=Groves, C.P. |author-link3=Colin Groves |name-list-style=amp |date=2004 |title=The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=645–651 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222518224}}</ref><ref name=msw3>{{MSW3 Artiodactyla |id=14200687 |pages=645–646 |heading=Subspecies ''Bos taurus indicus''}}</ref> In 2011, Groves and Grubb classified it as a distinct species again.<ref>{{cite book |first1=C. |last1=Groves |first2=P. |last2=Grubb |name-list-style=amp |year=2011 |title=Ungulate taxonomy |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore |pages=8–9 |chapter=Domestication |isbn=9781421400938 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3uZtA1ZpTAC&pg=PA9}}</ref>{{fv|date=September 2023}}
-The [[American Society of Mammalogists]] considers it part of the species ''Bos taurus'' in analogy to [[Sanga cattle]] (''Bos taurus africanus'' {{small|[[Robert Kerr (writer) |Kerr]],&nbsp;1792}}).<ref name=ASM21>{{Cite journal |author=American Society of Mammalogists |author-link=American Society of Mammalogists |title=Bos taurus |url=https://www.mammaldiversity.org/explore.html#genus=Bos&species=taurus&id=1006267 |journal=ASM Mammal Diversity Database |date=2021 |quote=[''[[Bos taurus]]''] includes '''''indicus''''', which is often treated as a distinct species; because both domestic forms originate from a single wild species [''[[Bos primigenius]]''], they are considered a single taxon here}}, citing: {{br}}
-* {{Cite journal |last=Gentry |first=Anthea |last2=Clutton-Brock |first2=Juliet |last3=Groves |first3=Colin P |date=2004-05-01 |title=The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives |url=https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2003.10.006 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=645–651 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006}} and
-* {{Cite book |last=Groves |first=Colin P. |title=Ungulate taxonomy |last2=Grubb |first2=Peter |date=2011 |publisher=J. Hopkins university press |isbn=978-1-4214-0093-8 |location=Baltimore (Md.)}}</ref> The [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature |ICZN]] has not yet published a ruling on the classification of domestic derivatives and no scientific body advocates the abolition of the [[Species concept#Mayr's Biological Species Concept |Biological Species Concept]] for domestic animals.
+The [[American Society of Mammalogists]] considers it part of the species ''Bos taurus'' in analogy to [[Sanga cattle]] (''Bos taurus africanus'' {{small|[[Robert Kerr (writer) |Kerr]],&nbsp;1792}}).<ref name=ASM21>{{Cite journal |author=American Society of Mammalogists |author-link=American Society of Mammalogists |title=Bos taurus |url=https://www.mammaldiversity.org/explore.html#genus=Bos&species=taurus&id=1006267 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230501164649/https://www.mammaldiversity.org/explore.html#genus=Bos&species=taurus&id=1006267 |journal=ASM Mammal Diversity Database |date=2021 |quote=[''[[Bos taurus]]''] includes '''''indicus''''', which is often treated as a distinct species; because both domestic forms originate from a single wild species [''[[Bos primigenius]]''], they are considered a single taxon here}}, citing: {{ulist |{{Cite journal |last=Gentry |first=Anthea |last2=Clutton-Brock |first2=Juliet |last3=Groves |first3=Colin P |date=2004-05-01 |title=The naming of wild animal species and their domestic derivatives |url=https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jas.2003.10.006 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=645–651 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2003.10.006}} and |{{Cite book |last=Groves |first=Colin P. |title=Ungulate taxonomy |last2=Grubb |first2=Peter |date=2011 |publisher=J. Hopkins university press |isbn=978-1-4214-0093-8 |location=Baltimore (Md.)}} }}</ref> The [[International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature |ICZN]] has not yet published a ruling on the classification of domestic derivatives and no scientific body advocates the abolition of the [[Species concept#Mayr's Biological Species Concept |Biological Species Concept]] for domestic animals.
 ==Origin==
 [[File:GODL Rampurva bull in profile.jpg|thumb|A [[Pillars of Ashoka|Pillar of Ashoka]], dating to the 3rd century BCE, depicting a zebu]]
 [[File:Coin of Azes II LACMA M.84.110.8 (2 of 2).jpg|thumb|Zebu pictured on a coin of the [[Indo-Scythian]] king [[Azes II]], late first century BC]]
-Zebu cattle are thought to be derived from the [[Indian aurochs]] ''Bos primigenius namadicus'', a [[subspecies]] of the aurochs.<ref name="Vuure">{{cite book |author=Van Vuure, C. |year=2005 |title=Retracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology and Ecology of an Extinct Wild Ox |publisher=Pensoft Publishers |location=Sofia |isbn=978-954-642-235-4}}</ref> Believed to have first been domesticated and bred in present-day [[Beluchistan]], [[Pakistan]] between 7000 and 6000 BCE, indicine cattle is understood to have been dispersed throughout northwestern South Asia by 4000 BCE, and spread across much of South Asia by 2000 BCE.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bradley |first=D G |last2=MacHugh |first2=D E |last3=Cunningham |first3=P |last4=Loftus |first4=R T |date=1996-05-14 |title=Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle. |url=https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.93.10.5131 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=93 |issue=10 |pages=5131–5135 |doi=10.1073/pnas.93.10.5131}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pérez-Pardal |first1=Lucía |last2=Sánchez-Gracia |first2=Alejandro |last3=Álvarez |first3=Isabel |last4=Traoré |first4=Amadou |last5=Ferraz |first5=J. Bento S. |last6=Fernández |first6=Iván |last7=Costa |first7=Vânia |last8=Chen |first8=Shanyuan |last9=Tapio |first9=Miika |last10=Cantet |first10=Rodolfo J. C. |last11=Patel |first11=Ajita |last12=Meadow |first12=Richard H. |last13=Marshall |first13=Fiona B. |last14=Beja-Pereira |first14=Albano |last15=Goyache |first15=Félix |date=2018-12-21 |title=Legacies of domestication, trade and herder mobility shape extant male zebu cattle diversity in South Asia and Africa |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=18027 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-36444-7 |pmid=30575786 |pmc=6303292 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref>
+Zebu cattle were found to derive from the [[Indian aurochs|Indian form]] of [[Aurochs#Taxonomy and evolution |aurochs]] and have first been [[domesticate]]d between 7,000 and 6,000 [[YBP]] at [[Mehrgarh]], present-day [[Pakistan]], by people linked to or coming from [[Mesopotamia]].<ref name="Vuure">{{cite book |author=Van Vuure, C. |year=2005 |title=Retracing the Aurochs: History, Morphology and Ecology of an Extinct Wild Ox |publisher=Pensoft Publishers |location=Sofia |isbn=978-954-642-235-4}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Bradley |first=D G |last2=MacHugh |first2=D E |last3=Cunningham |first3=P |last4=Loftus |first4=R T |date=1996-05-14 |title=Mitochondrial diversity and the origins of African and European cattle. |url=https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.93.10.5131 |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=93 |issue=10 |pages=5131–5135 |doi=10.1073/pnas.93.10.5131}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Pérez-Pardal |first1=Lucía |last2=Sánchez-Gracia |first2=Alejandro |last3=Álvarez |first3=Isabel |last4=Traoré |first4=Amadou |last5=Ferraz |first5=J. Bento S. |last6=Fernández |first6=Iván |last7=Costa |first7=Vânia |last8=Chen |first8=Shanyuan |last9=Tapio |first9=Miika |last10=Cantet |first10=Rodolfo J. C. |last11=Patel |first11=Ajita |last12=Meadow |first12=Richard H. |last13=Marshall |first13=Fiona B. |last14=Beja-Pereira |first14=Albano |last15=Goyache |first15=Félix |date=2018-12-21 |title=Legacies of domestication, trade and herder mobility shape extant male zebu cattle diversity in South Asia and Africa |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=18027 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-36444-7 |pmid=30575786 |pmc=6303292 |issn=2045-2322}}</ref><ref name="Gangal_14">{{cite journal |last1=Gangal |first1=Kavita |last2=Sarson |first2=Graeme R. |last3=Shukurov |first3=Anvar |title=The Near-Eastern Roots of the Neolithic in South Asia |journal=PLOS ONE |date=7 May 2014 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=e95714 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0095714 |url=https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pone.0095714 |language=en |issn=1932-6203}}</ref> Indicine cattle farming is understood to have spread across much of South Asia by 2000 BCE.
-Its wild ancestor, the Indian aurochs, became extinct during the time of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] likely due to habitat loss, caused by expanding pastoralism and interbreeding with domestic zebu.<ref name="Chen10" /><ref name="IWH2">{{cite book |author=Rangarajan, M. |year=2001 |title=India's Wildlife History |page=4 |location=[[Delhi]], India |publisher=Permanent Black |isbn=978-81-7824-140-1}}</ref> No remains younger than 3,800 [[YBP]] were ever found, making it the first of the three [[Aurochs#Taxonomy and evolution|aurochs subspecies]] to become [[Holocene extinction#Human activity|extinct]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turvey |first1=Samuel T. |last2=Sathe |first2=Vijay |last3=Crees |first3=Jennifer J. |last4=Jukar |first4=Advait M. |last5=Chakraborty |first5=Prateek |last6=Lister |first6=Adrian M. |title=Late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in India: How much do we know? |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=January 2021 |volume=252 |pages=106740 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106740|s2cid=234265221 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10116065/12/Turvey_India_megafauna_paper_highlights.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Bos primigenius: Tikhonov, A.: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T136721A4332142 |date=30 June 2008 |doi=10.2305/iucn.uk.2008.rlts.t136721a4332142.en |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Chen et al., 2010">Chen et al., 2010: "Zebu cattle are an exclusive legacy of the South Asia Neolithic." ''Molecular biology and evolution'', 27(1), 1-6. [https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/27/1/1/1127118 https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/27/1/1/1127118] (in Supplementary Data)</ref>
+Its wild ancestor, the Indian aurochs, [[Holocene extinction#Historic extinction|became extinct]] during the [[Indus Valley civilisation]] likely due to habitat loss, caused by expanding pastoralism and interbreeding with domestic zebu.<ref name="Chen10" /><ref name="IWH2">{{cite book |author=Rangarajan, M. |year=2001 |title=India's Wildlife History |page=4 |location=[[Delhi]], India |publisher=Permanent Black |isbn=978-81-7824-140-1}}</ref> Its latest remaiens ever found were dated to 3,800 YBP, making it the first of the three [[Aurochs#Taxonomy and evolution|aurochs subspecies]] to die out.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Turvey |first1=Samuel T. |last2=Sathe |first2=Vijay |last3=Crees |first3=Jennifer J. |last4=Jukar |first4=Advait M. |last5=Chakraborty |first5=Prateek |last6=Lister |first6=Adrian M. |title=Late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in India: How much do we know? |journal=Quaternary Science Reviews |date=January 2021 |volume=252 |pages=106740 |doi=10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106740|s2cid=234265221 |url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10116065/12/Turvey_India_megafauna_paper_highlights.pdf }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Bos primigenius: Tikhonov, A.: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2008: e.T136721A4332142 |date=30 June 2008 |doi=10.2305/iucn.uk.2008.rlts.t136721a4332142.en |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature |language=en|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="Chen et al., 2010">Chen et al., 2010: "Zebu cattle are an exclusive legacy of the South Asia Neolithic." ''Molecular biology and evolution'', 27(1), 1-6. [https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/27/1/1/1127118 https://academic.oup.com/mbe/article/27/1/1/1127118] (in Supplementary Data)</ref>
-Archaeological evidence including depictions on pottery and rocks suggests that it was present in Egypt around 2000 BC and thought to be imported from the Near East or south. It is thought to have first appeared in [[sub-Saharan Africa]] after 700 AD and was introduced to the [[Horn of Africa]] around 1000.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=2743556 |title=Rethinking the Role of ''Bos indicus'' in Sub-Sahara Africa|last=Marshall, F. |date=1989 |journal=[[Current Anthropology]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=235–240 |doi=10.1086/203737 |s2cid=143063029}}</ref>
+Archaeological evidence including depictions on pottery and rocks suggests that humped cattle likely imported from the [[Ancient Near East |Near East]] was present in [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt |Egypt]] around 4,000 YBP. Its first appearance in the [[Subsahara]] is dated to after 700 AD and it was introduced to the [[Horn of Africa]] around 1000.<ref>{{Cite journal |jstor=2743556 |title=Rethinking the Role of ''Bos indicus'' in Sub-Sahara Africa|last=Marshall, F. |date=1989 |journal=[[Current Anthropology]] |volume=30 |issue=2 |pages=235–240 |doi=10.1086/203737 |s2cid=143063029}}</ref>
 Phylogenetic analysis revealed that all the zebu [[Y chromosome]] [[haplotype]] groups are found in three different lineages: Y3A, the most predominant and cosmopolitan lineage; Y3B, only observed in West Africa; and Y3C, predominant in south and northeast India.<ref>{{cite journal|jstor=18027|title=Legacies of domestication, trade and herder mobility shape extant male zebu cattle diversity in South Asia and Africa |author1=Pérez-Pardal, L. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Sánchez-Gracia, A. |author3=Álvarez, I. |author4=Traoré, A. |author5=Ferraz, J.B.S. |author6=Fernández, I. |author7=Costa, V. |author8=Chen, S. |author9=Tapio, M. |author10=Cantet, R.J. |author11=Patel, A. |date=2018 |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |volume=8 |issue=1 |page=18027 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-36444-7 |pmid=30575786 |pmc=6303292 |bibcode=2018NatSR...818027P}}</ref>
+==Characteristics==
-==Breeds and hybrids==
-[[File:Hariana_02.JPG|thumbnail|[[Haryanvi cattle|Hariana]] breed of zebu cattle in north [[India]]]]
+[[File:Female zebu cattle.JPG|thumbnail|Female zebu in Sri Lanka]]
+Zebu, but also many Sanga cattle have humps on the shoulders, large dewlaps and droopy ears.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?zebu|publisher=Online Medical Dictionary |access-date=2007-09-08|title=Definition: Zebu}}</ref> Sanga cattle can be distinguished from purebred zebu by their having smaller humps located farther forward.{{cn}}
-Some 75 breeds of zebu are known, split about evenly between African breeds and Indian ones. The major zebu cattle breeds of the world include [[Gyr cattle|Gyr]], [[Kankrej cattle and Guzerat cattle|Kankrej and Guzerat]], [[Indo-Brazilian cattle|Indo-Brazilian]], [[Brahman (cattle)|Brahman]], [[Sibi bhagnari|Sibi Bhagnari]], White Nukra, [[Lohani cattle|Acchai]],<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.pakdairyinfo.com/achai.htm |title = Pak Dairy Info - Achi Breed}}</ref> [[Cholistani (cattle)|Cholistani]],
-[[Dhanni (cattle)|Dhanni]], [[Lohani cattle|Lohani]], [[Nelore]], [[Ongole cattle|Ongole]], [[Sahiwal cattle|Sahiwal]], [[Red Sindhi cattle|Red Sindhi]], [[Butana and Kenana cattle|Butana and Kenana]], [[Baggara cattle|Baggara]], [[Tharparkar cattle|Tharparkar]], [[Kangayam cattle|Kangayam]], [[Southern Yellow cattle|Southern Yellow]], Kedah-Kelantan and Local Indian Dairy (LID). Kedah-Kelantan and LID originated from Malaysia. Other breeds of zebu are quite local, like the [[Haryanvi cattle|Hariana]] of [[Haryana]] and eastern [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Porter, V. |year=1991 |title=Cattle: A Handbook to the Breeds of the World |location=London |publisher=Helm |chapter=Hariana — India: Haryana, eastern Punjab |page=245 |chapter-url= |isbn=0-8160-2640-8}}</ref> or the Rath of [[Alwar district]] in eastern [[Rajasthan]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Porter, V. |year=1991 |title=Cattle: A Handbook to the Breeds of the World |location=London |publisher=Helm |chapter=Rath — India: Alwar and eastern Rajasthan |page=246 |isbn=0-8160-2640-8}}</ref>
+Compared to taurine cattle, zebus are well adapted to the hot [[Tropical savanna climate |savanna]] and [[Semi-arid_climate#Hot_semi-arid_climates |steppe]] environments. These adaptations result in higher tolerance for drought, heat and sunlight exposure.<ref name=Mukasa-Mugerwa>{{Cite book|title = A Review of a Reproductive Performance of Female ''Bos Indicus'' (zebu) Cattle |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mR7422SxIw4C|publisher = ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD) |date=1989 |isbn=9789290530992 |first=E. |last=Mukasa-Mugerwa}}</ref> Unlike many Sanga cattle however, zebu does not exhibit [[trypanotolerance]], making it susceptible to [[nagana]],<ref name="MacHugh-et-al-1997">{{cite journal |last1=MacHugh |first1=D.E. |title=Microsatellite DNA Variation and the evolution, domestication and phylogeography of Taurine and Zebu Cattle (''Bos taurus'' and ''Bos indicus'') |journal=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]] |volume=146 |issue=3 |year=1997 |pages=1071–1086 |doi=10.1093/genetics/146.3.1071 |pmid=9215909 |pmc=1208036 |url=http://www.genetics.org/content/146/3/1071.long}}</ref><ref name="Makina-et-al-2016">{{cite journal | last1=Makina | first1=S.O. |last2=Whitacre |first2=L.K. | last3=Decker |first3=J.E. |last4=Taylor |first4=J.F. |last5=MacNeil |first5=M.D. | last6=Scholtz |first6=M.M. |last7=van Marle-Köster |first7=E. |last8=Muchadeyi |first8=F.C. | last9=Makgahlela |first9=M.L. |last10=Maiwashe |first10=A. | title=Insight into the genetic composition of South African Sanga cattle using SNP data from cattle breeds worldwide |journal=[[Genetics Selection Evolution]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |date=2016 |page=88 |doi=10.1186/s12711-016-0266-1 |pmid=27846793 |pmc=5111355 |name-list-style=amp | doi-access=free }}</ref> as evidenced by the pattern of zebu [[introgression]] into African cattle.<ref name="MacHugh-et-al-1997" />
-Zebu, which can tolerate extreme heat,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/07/food-ark/cattle-breeds#/1 |title=Food Ark - Cattle Breeds - Pictures, More From National Geographic Magazine |publisher=Ngm.nationalgeographic.com |date=2013-04-25 |access-date=2013-05-30}}</ref> were imported into [[Brazil]] in the early 20th century. Their importation marked a change in cattle ranching in Brazil, where feral cattle had grazed freely on extensive pasturage, and bred without animal husbandry. Zebu were considered "ecological" since they could graze on natural grasses and their meat was lean and without chemical residues.<ref>{{cite book |author=Wilcox, R.W. |year=2004 |chapter=Zebu's Elbows: Cattle Breeding the Environment in Central Brazil, 1890-1960 |pages=218–246 |title=Territories, commodities, and knowledges: Latin American Environmental History in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries |editor1=Brannstrom, C. |publisher=Institute for the Study of the Americas |location=London |isbn=9781900039574 |chapter-url=}}</ref>
+Furthermore, another important characteristic of the Zebu is that they are {{cfy|text=able to defend against parasites and diseases quite well}}.<ref>Utsunomiya, Y.T., Milanesi, M., Fortes, M.R.S., Porto-Neto, L.R., Utsunomiya, A.T.H., Silva, M.V.G.B., Garcia, J.F. and Ajmone-Marsan, P. (2019), Genomic clues of the evolutionary history of Bos indicus cattle. Anim Genet, 50: 557-568.</ref>
-{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2021}}
-From the 1960s onwards, [[Nelore]] which is an off breed of [[Ongole Cattle]] became the primary breed of [[cattle]] in Brazil because of its hardiness, heat-resistance, and because it thrives on poor-quality forage and breeds easily, with the calves rarely requiring human intervention to survive. Currently more than 80% of [[beef cattle]] in Brazil (approximately 167,000,000 animals) are either purebred or hybrid [[Ongole Cattle]] which is originated from Ongle region of Andhra Pradesh.
+==Reproduction==
+Zebu are generally mature enough to give birth when they are 29 months old. This is based on the development of their bodies to withstand the strain of carrying and lactation. Early reproduction can place too much stress on the body and possibly shorten lifespans. Carrying time of the calf averages at 285 days, but varies depending on the age and nutrition of the mother. The sex of the calf may also affect the carrying time, as male calves are carried for a longer period than females. Location, breed, body weight, and season affect the overall health of the animal and in return may also affect the carrying period.<ref name=Mukasa-Mugerwa/>
+== Behavior ==
+Studies on the natural weaning of zebu cattle have shown that the cow weans her calves over a 2-week period, but after that, she continues to show strong affiliatory behavior with her offspring and preferentially chooses them for grooming and as grazing partners for at least 4–5 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reinhardt |first1=V. |last2=Reinhardt|first2=A. |name-list-style=amp |year=1981 |title=Cohesive relationships in a cattle herd (''Bos indicus'') |journal=Behaviour |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=121–150 |doi=10.1163/156853981X00194}}</ref>
+==Breeds and hybrids==
+Zebu are very common in much of Asia, including Pakistan, India, [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]] and China. In Asia, taurine cattle are mainly found in the northern regions such as [[Japan]], [[Korea]], northern China and [[Mongolia]]. In China, taurine cattle are most common in northern breeds, zebu more common in southern breeds, with hybrids in between.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Dawei |last2=Sun |first2=Yang |last3=Tang |first3=Zhuowei |last4=Hu |first4=Songmei |last5=Li |first5=Wenying |last6=Zhao |first6=Xingbo |last7=Xiang |first7=Hai |last8=Zhou |first8=Hui |date=2014-01-01 |title=The origins of Chinese domestic cattle as revealed by ancient DNA analysis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440313003166 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=41 |pages=423–434 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2013.09.003 |issn=0305-4403}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Komosińska |first=Halina |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/749423644 |title=Ssaki kopytne : przewodnik |date=2002 |publisher=Wydaw. Naukowe PWN |others=Elżbieta Podsiadło |isbn=83-01-13806-8 |location=Warszawa |language=pl |oclc=749423644}}</ref>
-The African [[sanga cattle]] breeds originated from hybridization of zebu with indigenous African humpless cattle; they include the [[Afrikaner cattle|Afrikaner]], [[Red Fulani cattle]], [[Ankole-Watusi]], [[Boran cattle]] and many other breeds of central and southern Africa.  Sanga cattle can be distinguished from pure zebu by their having smaller humps located farther forward on the animals.
 [[File:Zébus de Madagascar 02.jpg|thumb|Zebu market in [[Madagascar]]]]
+Zebu were imported to Africa since the [[Bronze Age and]] crossed with taurine cattle. Genetic analysis of African cattle found higher proportions of zebu genes along the [[East Africa]]n coast, with hardly any taurine component on [[Madagascar]], either implying that the method of dispersal was cattle transported by ship or the zebu may have reached East Africa via the coastal route (via [[Pakistan]], [[Iran]], [[South Arabia |Yemen]]).
+Partial resistance to [[rinderpest]] caused a further increase of zebu breeds in Africa.{{cn}}
-Zebu were imported to Africa over many hundreds of years, and interbred with taurine cattle there. Genetic analysis of African cattle has found higher concentrations of zebu genes all along the east coast of Africa, with especially pure cattle on the island of [[Madagascar]], either implying that the method of dispersal was cattle transported by ship or alternatively, the zebu may have reached East Africa via the coastal route ([[Pakistan]], [[Iran]], Southern Arabian coast) much earlier and crossed over to Madagascar. Geneticists at the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI) in Nairobi, Kenya, and in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia claim that cattle were domesticated in Africa independent of domestication in the Near East. They conclude that the southern African cattle populations derive originally from the eastern seaboard rather than from a southbound migration of the western cattle.<ref>Hanotte, O et al (2002) REPORT African Pastoralism: Genetic Imprints of Origins and Migrations Science 12 Apr 2002 Vol. 296 Issue 5566 pp 336-339</ref> These results do not tell us whether domestication occurred first in Africa or the Near East.<ref>Stokstad, E (2002) Archaeology: Early cowboys herded cattle in Africa Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 04/2002, Volume 296 Issue 5566</ref>
+Geneticists at the [[International Livestock Research Institute |International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI)]] in Nairobi, Kenya and in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia discovered that cattle had been domesticated in Africa independently of domestication in the Near East. They concluded that the southern African cattle populations derive originally from East Africa rather than from a southbound migration of taurine cattle.<ref>Hanotte, O et al (2002) REPORT African Pastoralism: Genetic Imprints of Origins and Migrations Science 12 Apr 2002 Vol. 296 Issue 5566 pp 336-339</ref> The results are inconclusive as to whether domestication occurred first in Africa or the Near East.<ref>Stokstad, E (2002) Archaeology: Early cowboys herded cattle in Africa Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science) 04/2002, Volume 296 Issue 5566</ref>
-Partial resistance to [[rinderpest]] led to another increase in the frequency of zebu in Africa.
+Other scientists{{who}} consider the African [[Sanga cattle]] breeds to have originated from hybridization of zebu with {{cfy |text=indigenous African humpless cattle |reason=Other than taurine?}} leading to the [[Afrikaner cattle|Afrikaner]], [[Red Fulani cattle |Red Fulani]], [[Ankole (cattle) |Ankole]], [[Boran cattle |Boran]] and [[Sanga cattle#Breeds of Sanga cattle |many other]] breeds.
-In the early 20th century in Brazil, Zebu were crossbred with [[Charolais cattle]], a European taurine breed. The resulting breed, 63% Charolais and 37% zebu, is called the [[Canchim]]. It has a better meat quality than the zebu and better heat resistance than European cattle. The zebu breeds used were primarily Indo-Brazilian with some Nelore and Guzerat. Another Charolais cross-breed with Brahmans is called [[Australian Charbray]] and is recognised as a breed in some countries. Zebu are very common in much of Asia, including southern China, Pakistan, India, [[Nepal]], [[Bangladesh]], and almost all countries in [[Southeast Asia]]. In Asia, taurine cattle are mainly found in the northern regions such as [[Japan]], [[Korea]], northern China, and [[Mongolia]], possibly domesticated separately from the other taurine cattle originating from Europe and Africa. A mixture of Zebu and taurine cattle are found in China, with taurine cattle most common in northern breeds, zebu more common in southern breeds, and a mixture of taurine cattle and zebu making up breeds in central China.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Cai |first1=Dawei |last2=Sun |first2=Yang |last3=Tang |first3=Zhuowei |last4=Hu |first4=Songmei |last5=Li |first5=Wenying |last6=Zhao |first6=Xingbo |last7=Xiang |first7=Hai |last8=Zhou |first8=Hui |date=2014-01-01 |title=The origins of Chinese domestic cattle as revealed by ancient DNA analysis |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0305440313003166 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=41 |pages=423–434 |doi=10.1016/j.jas.2013.09.003 |issn=0305-4403}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Komosińska |first=Halina |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/749423644 |title=Ssaki kopytne : przewodnik |date=2002 |publisher=Wydaw. Naukowe PWN |others=Elżbieta Podsiadło |isbn=83-01-13806-8 |location=Warszawa |language=pl |oclc=749423644}}</ref>
+Some 75 breeds of zebu are known, split about evenly between African and Indian breeds.
-==Characteristics==
-[[File:Female zebu cattle.JPG|thumbnail|Female zebu in Sri Lanka]]
-Zebu have humps on the shoulders, large dewlaps, and droopy ears.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://cancerweb.ncl.ac.uk/cgi-bin/omd?zebu|publisher=Online Medical Dictionary |access-date=2007-09-08|title=Definition: Zebu}}</ref> Compared to taurine cattle, zebus are well adapted to the hot, dry environment of the tropics. Adaptations include resistance to drought and tolerance of intense heat and sunlight.<ref name=Mukasa-Mugerwa>{{Cite book|title = A Review of a Reproductive Performance of Female ''Bos Indicus'' (zebu) Cattle |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=mR7422SxIw4C|publisher = ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD) |date=1989 |isbn=9789290530992 |first=E. |last=Mukasa-Mugerwa}}</ref>
+{| class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
-As expected for a non-African breed, the zebu does not appear to have any [[trypanotolerance]],<ref name="MacHugh-et-al-1997">{{cite journal |last1=MacHugh |first1=D.E. |title=Microsatellite DNA Variation and the evolution, domestication and phylogeography of Taurine and Zebu Cattle (''Bos taurus'' and ''Bos indicus'') |journal=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]] |volume=146 |issue=3 |year=1997 |pages=1071–1086 |doi=10.1093/genetics/146.3.1071 |pmid=9215909 |pmc=1208036     |url=http://www.genetics.org/content/146/3/1071.long}}</ref><ref name="Makina-et-al-2016">{{cite journal | last1=Makina | first1=S.O. |last2=Whitacre |first2=L.K. | last3=Decker |first3=J.E. |last4=Taylor |first4=J.F. |last5=MacNeil |first5=M.D. | last6=Scholtz |first6=M.M. |last7=van Marle-Köster |first7=E. |last8=Muchadeyi |first8=F.C. | last9=Makgahlela |first9=M.L. |last10=Maiwashe |first10=A. | title=Insight into the genetic composition of South African Sanga cattle using SNP data from cattle breeds worldwide |journal=[[Genetics Selection Evolution]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |date=2016 |page=88 |doi=10.1186/s12711-016-0266-1 |pmid=27846793 |pmc=5111355 |name-list-style=amp | doi-access=free }}</ref> as evidenced by the pattern of zebu [[introgression]] into African cattle.<ref name="MacHugh-et-al-1997" /> There is a decrease up to - and rapid end at - [[tsetse]]-infested areas.<ref name="MacHugh-et-al-1997" />
+<!-- |+ class="nowrap" --> | List of widely distributed zebu breeds{{cn}}
+|-
+| {{ulist |[[Gyr cattle|Gyr]] |[[Kankrej cattle and Guzerat cattle|Kankrej and Guzerat]] |[[Indo-Brazilian cattle|Indo-Brazilian]] |[[Brahman (cattle)|Brahman]] |[[Sibi bhagnari|Sibi Bhagnari]] |White Nukra |[[Lohani cattle|Acchai]]<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.pakdairyinfo.com/achai.htm |title = Pak Dairy Info - Achi Breed}}</ref> |[[Cholistani (cattle)|Cholistani]] |[[Dhanni (cattle)|Dhanni]] |[[Lohani cattle|Lohani]] |[[Nelore]] |[[Ongole cattle|Ongole]] |[[Sahiwal cattle|Sahiwal]] |[[Red Sindhi cattle|Red Sindhi]] |[[Butana and Kenana cattle|Butana and Kenana]] |[[Baggara cattle|Baggara]] |[[Tharparkar cattle|Tharparkar]] |[[Kangayam cattle|Kangayam]] |[[Southern Yellow cattle|Southern Yellow]] |Kedah-Kelantan |Local Indian Dairy (LID) }}
+|-
+|}
+[[File:Hariana_02.JPG|thumbnail|[[Haryanvi cattle|Hariana breed]] of zebu type cattle in north [[India]]]]
-Zebu is phenotypically recognized by their hump on the backside of their body, their excess skin, and their large ears. Furthermore, another important characteristic of the Zebu is that they are able to defend against parasites and diseases quite well considering the harsh environment they reside in. <ref>Utsunomiya, Y.T., Milanesi, M., Fortes, M.R.S., Porto-Neto, L.R., Utsunomiya, A.T.H., Silva, M.V.G.B., Garcia, J.F. and Ajmone-Marsan, P. (2019), Genomic clues of the evolutionary history of Bos indicus cattle. Anim Genet, 50: 557-568.</ref>
+Other breeds of zebu are quite local, like the [[Haryanvi cattle|Hariana]] from [[Haryana]], [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]<ref>{{cite book |author=Porter, V. |year=1991 |title=Cattle: A Handbook to the Breeds of the World |location=London |publisher=Helm |chapter=Hariana — India: Haryana, eastern Punjab |page=245 |chapter-url= |isbn=0-8160-2640-8}}</ref> or the [[Rath]] from [[Alwar district]], [[Rajasthan]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Porter, V. |year=1991 |title=Cattle: A Handbook to the Breeds of the World |location=London |publisher=Helm |chapter=Rath — India: Alwar and eastern Rajasthan |page=246 |isbn=0-8160-2640-8}}</ref>
+Zebu, which are adapted to [[tropics|high temperatures]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2011/07/food-ark/cattle-breeds#/1 |title=Food Ark - Cattle Breeds - Pictures, More From National Geographic Magazine |publisher=Ngm.nationalgeographic.com |date=2013-04-25 |access-date=2013-05-30}}</ref> were imported into [[Brazil]] in the early 20th century. Their importation marked a change in cattle ranching in Brazil as they were considered "ecological" since {{cfy |text=they could graze on natural grasses |pre-text=Is there a [[ruminant]] that can't?}} and their meat was lean and without chemical residues{{undefined}}.<ref>{{cite book |author=Wilcox, R.W. |year=2004 |chapter=Zebu's Elbows: Cattle Breeding the Environment in Central Brazil, 1890-1960 |pages=218–246 |title=Territories, commodities, and knowledges: Latin American Environmental History in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries |editor1=Brannstrom, C. |publisher=Institute for the Study of the Americas |location=London |isbn=9781900039574 |chapter-url=}}</ref>
-==Reproduction==
-Zebu are generally mature enough to give birth when they are 29 months old. This is based on the development of their bodies to withstand the strain of carrying and lactation. Early reproduction can place too much stress on the body and possibly shorten lifespans. Carrying time of the calf averages at 285 days, but varies depending on the age and nutrition of the mother. The sex of the calf may also affect the carrying time, as male calves are carried for a longer period than females. Location, breed, body weight, and season affect the overall health of the animal and in return may also affect the carrying period.<ref name=Mukasa-Mugerwa/>
+In the early 20th century in Brazil, Zebu were crossbred with [[Charolais cattle]], a European taurine breed. The resulting breed, 63% Charolais and 37% zebu, is called the [[Canchim]]. It has a better meat quality than the zebu and better heat resistance than European cattle. The zebu breeds used were primarily Indo-Brazilian with some Nelore and Guzerat. Another Charolais cross-breed with Brahmans is called [[Australian Charbray]] and is recognised as a breed in some countries.
-== Behavior ==
-Studies on the natural weaning of zebu cattle have shown that the cow weans her calves over a 2-week period, but after that, she continues to show strong affiliatory behavior with her offspring and preferentially chooses them for grooming and as grazing partners for at least 4–5 years.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Reinhardt |first1=V. |last2=Reinhardt|first2=A. |name-list-style=amp |year=1981 |title=Cohesive relationships in a cattle herd (''Bos indicus'') |journal=Behaviour |volume=77 |issue=3 |pages=121–150 |doi=10.1163/156853981X00194}}</ref>
+{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2021}}
+From the 1960s onwards, [[Nelore]] which is an off breed of [[Ongole Cattle]] became the primary breed of [[cattle]] in Brazil because of its hardiness, heat-resistance, and because it thrives on poor-quality forage and breeds easily, with the calves rarely requiring human intervention to survive. Currently more than 80% of [[beef cattle]] in Brazil (approximately 167,000,000 animals) are either purebred or hybrid [[Ongole Cattle]] which is originated from Ongle region of Andhra Pradesh.
 ==Uses==
@@ Line 77: / Line 101: @@
 In 1999, researchers at [[Texas A&M University]] successfully [[Cloning|cloned]] a zebu.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/437391.stm |title=Cloning gives second chance for bull |date=1999-09-03 |work=BBC News |publisher=[[BBC|British Broadcasting Corporation]] |access-date=2008-10-11}}</ref>
-''[[Jallikattu]]'' in India is a bull taming sport radically different from European bullfighting, humans are unarmed and bulls are not killed.
+''[[Jallikattu]]'' in India is a bull taming sport differing from European bullfighting in that humans are unarmed and the bulls are not killed.
 === Hindu tradition ===

Taxon identifiers
Bos primigenius	Wikidata: Q168903 Wikispecies: Bos primigenius CoL: MLQ3 EUNIS: 15686 Fauna Europaea: 305223 Fauna Europaea (new): 7ab0b649-d87b-4758-85a3-4a2d21a3bf3b GBIF: 2441024 iNaturalist: 144091 IRMNG: 10790084 ITIS: 183845 IUCN: 136721 MDD: 1006265 NCBI: 9909 Observation.org: 200395 Paleobiology Database: 367674
Bos indicus	Wikidata: Q20747726 CoL: MLPX GBIF: 2441023 iNaturalist: 334675 IRMNG: 11439412 ITIS: 183839 NCBI: 9915 Open Tree of Life: 490109 Paleobiology Database: 104267 ZooBank: 5D5D4049-D903-4873-9D6E-4B86ED3A8DFC