Bearded vulture: Difference between revisions

Bearded vulture
Conservation status
	; Near Threatened (IUCN 3.1)
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Kingdom:	Animalia
Phylum:	Chordata
Class:	Aves
Order:	Accipitriformes
Family:	Accipitridae
Subfamily:	Gypaetinae
Genus:	Gypaetus; Storr, 1784
Species:	G. barbatus
Binomial name
	Gypaetus barbatus; (Linnaeus, 1758)
Subspecies
	G. b. barbatus - (Linnaeus, 1758); G. b. meridionalis - Keyserling & Blasius, JH, 1840;
	Distribution of Gypaetus barbatus Resident Non-breeding Probably extinct Extinct Possibly extant (resident) Extant & reintroduced (resident)
Synonyms
	Vultur barbatus Linnaeus, 1758;

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The bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus), also known as the lammergeier and ossifrage, is a very large bird of prey in the monotypic genus Gypaetus. Traditionally considered an Old World vulture, it actually forms a separate minor lineage of Accipitridae together with the Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) and Palm-nut vulture (Gypohierax angolensis), its closest living relatives. It is not much more closely related to the Old World vultures proper than to, for example, hawks, and differs from the former by its feathered neck. Although dissimilar, the Egyptian and bearded vulture each have a lozenge-shaped tail—unusual among birds of prey. It is vernacularly known as Homa, a bird in Iranian mythology.^[3]

The bearded vulture population is thought to be in decline; in 2004, it was classified on the IUCN Red List as least concern but has been listed as near threatened since 2014. It lives and breeds on crags in high mountains in Iran, southern Europe, East Africa, the Indian subcontinent, Tibet,^[1] and the Caucasus. Females lay one or two eggs in mid-winter that hatch at the beginning of spring. The bearded vulture is the only known vertebrate whose diet consists of 70–90% bone.^[4]

Taxonomy

The bearded vulture was formally described in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae. He placed it with the vultures and condors in the genus Vultur and coined the binomial name Vultur barbatus.^[5]^[6] Linnaeus based his account on the "bearded vulture" that had been described and illustrated in 1750 by the English naturalist George Edwards. Edwards had based his hand-coloured etching on a specimen that had been collected at Santa Cruz near the town of Oran in Algeria.^[7] Linnaeus specified the type locality as Africa, but in 1914 this was restricted to Santa Cruz by the German orthithologist Ernst Hartert.^[8]^[6] The bearded vulture is now the only species placed in the genus Gypaetus that was introduced in 1784 by the German naturalist Gottlieb Storr.^[9]^[10] The genus name Gypaetus is from Ancient Greek gupaietos, a corrupt form of hupaietos meaning "eagle" or "vulture". The specific epithet barbatus is Latin meaning "bearded" (from barba, "beard").^[11] The name "lammergeier" originates from the German word Lämmergeier, which means "lamb-vulture". The name stems from the belief that it attacked lambs.^[12]

Two subspecies are recognised:^[10]

G. b. barbatus (Linnaeus, 1758) (includes hemachalanus and aureus) – south Europe and northwest Africa to northeast China through the Himalayas to Nepal and west Pakistan
G. b. meridionalis Keyserling & Blasius, JH, 1840 – southwest Arabia and northeast, east, south Africa

Description

This bearded vulture is 94–125 cm (37–49 in) long with a wingspan of 2.31–2.83 m (7 ft 7 in – 9 ft 3 in).^[13] It weighs 4.5–7.8 kg (9.9–17.2 lb), with the nominate race averaging 6.21 kg (13.7 lb) and G. b. meridionalis of Africa averaging 5.7 kg (13 lb).^[13] In Eurasia, vultures found around the Himalayas tend to be slightly larger than those from other mountain ranges.^[13] Females are slightly larger than males.^[13]^[14] It is essentially unmistakable with other vultures or indeed other birds in flight due to its long, narrow wings, with the wing chord measuring 71.5–91 cm (28.1–35.8 in), and long, wedge-shaped tail, which measures 42.7–52 cm (16.8–20.5 in) in length. The tail is longer than the width of the wing.^[15] The tarsus is relatively small for the bird's size, at 8.8–10 cm (3.5–3.9 in). The proportions of the species have been compared to a falcon, scaled to an enormous size.^[13]

Unlike most vultures, the bearded vulture does not have a bald head. This species is relatively small-headed, although its neck is powerful and thick. It has a generally elongated, slender shape, sometimes appearing bulkier due to the often hunched back of these birds. The gait on the ground is waddling and the feet are large and powerful. The adult is mostly dark gray, rusty, and whitish in color. It is grey-blue to grey-black above. The creamy-coloured forehead contrasts against a black band across the eyes and lores and bristles under the chin, which form a black beard that give the species its English name. Bearded vultures are variably orange or rust of plumage on their head, breast, and leg feathers, but this is thought to be cosmetic. This colouration comes from dust-bathing or rubbing iron-rich mud on its body.^[16]^[17] They also transfer the brown colour to the eggs.^[18] The tail feathers and wings are gray. The juvenile bird is dark black-brown over most of the body, with a buff-brown breast and takes five years to reach full maturity. The bearded vulture is silent, apart from shrill whistles in their breeding displays and a falcon-like cheek-acheek call made around the nest.^[13]

Physiology

The acid concentration in the bearded vulture's stomach has been estimated to be of pH about 1. Large bones are digested in about 24 hours, aided by slow mixing or churning of the stomach content. The high fat content of bone marrow makes the net energy value of bone almost as good as that of muscle, even if bone is less completely digested. A skeleton left on a mountain will dehydrate and become protected from bacterial degradation, and the bearded vulture can return to consume the remainder of a carcass even months after the soft parts have been consumed by other animals, larvae, and bacteria.^[19]

Distribution and habitat

The bearded vulture is sparsely distributed across a vast range. It occurs in mountainous regions in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Arabian Peninsula, the Caucasus region, the Zagros Mountains and Alborz Mountains in Iran, the Koh-i-Baba in Bamyan, Afghanistan, the Altai Mountains, the Himalayas, Ladakh in northern India, and western and central China.^[1] In Africa, it lives in the Atlas Mountains, the Ethiopian Highlands and south from Sudan to northeastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, central Kenya, and northern Tanzania. An isolated population inhabits the Drakensberg in South Africa.^[13] It has been reintroduced in several places in Spain, such as the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura and Las Villas Jaén, the Province of Castellón and Asturias. The resident population as of 2018 was estimated at 1,200 to 1,500 individuals.^[20]

In Israel it is locally extinct as a breeder since 1981, but young birds have been reported in 2000, 2004, and 2016.^[21] The species is extinct in Romania, the last specimens from the Carpathians being shot in 1927.^[22] However, unconfirmed sightings of the bearded vulture happened in the 2000s, and in 2016 a specimen from a restoration project in France also flew over the country before returning to the Alps.^[23]^[24]

In southern Africa, the total population as of 2010 was estimated at 408 adult birds and 224 young birds of all age classes therefore giving an estimate of about 632 birds.^[25]

In Ethiopia, it is common at garbage dumps tips on the outskirts of small villages and towns. Although it occasionally descends to 300–600 m (980–1,970 ft), the bearded vulture is rare below an elevation of 1,000 m (3,300 ft) and normally resides above 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in some parts of its range. It typically lives around or above the tree line which are often near the tops of the mountains, at up to 2,000 m (6,600 ft) in Europe, 4,500 m (14,800 ft) in Africa and 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in central Asia. In southern Armenia, it breeds below 1,000 m (3,300 ft) if cliff availability permits.^[26] It has even been observed living at elevations of 7,500 m (24,600 ft) in the Himalayas and been observed flying at a height of 7,300 m (24,000 ft).^[27]^[28]

Though a rare visitor, bearded vultures occasionally travel to parts of the United Kingdom, with the first confirmed sighting taking place in 2016 in Wales and the Westcountry.^[29] A series of sightings took place in 2020, when an individual bird was sighted separately over the Channel Island of Alderney after migrating north through France,^[30] then in the Peak District,^[31] Derbyshire, Cambridgeshire, and Lincolnshire. The bird, nicknamed 'Vigo' by Tim Birch of the Derbyshire Wildlife Trust, is believed to have originated from the reintroduced population in the Alps.^[32]

Behaviour and ecology

Diet and feeding

The bearded vulture is a scavenger, feeding mostly on the remains of dead animals. Its diet comprises mammals (93%), birds (6%) and reptiles (1%), with medium-sized ungulates forming a large part of the diet.^[33] It usually disdains the actual meat and typically lives on 85–90% bones including bone marrow.^[34] This is the only living bird species that specializes in feeding on bones.^[13] Meat and skin only makes up a small part of what the adults eat, but scraps of meat or skin makes up a larger amount of the chicks' diet.^[35] The bearded vulture can swallow whole or bite through brittle bones up to the size of a lamb's femur^[36] and its powerful digestive system quickly dissolves even large pieces. Their favored variants of bones to consume consist of fattier and elongated bones like tarsal bones and tibias. They contain more levels of oleic acid which is highly nutritional for them compared to bones that are tinier. Smaller bones will contain less accessible bone marrow therefore being of less value. The bearded vulture has learned to crack bones too large to be swallowed by carrying them in flight to a height of 50–150 m (160–490 ft) above the ground and then dropping them onto rocks below, which smashes them into smaller pieces and exposes the nutritious marrow.^[13] They can fly with bones up to 10 cm (3.9 in) in diameter and weighing over 4 kg (8.8 lb), or nearly equal to their own weight.^[13]

After dropping the large bones, the bearded vulture spirals or glides down to inspect them and may repeat the act if the bone is not sufficiently cracked.^[13] This learned skill requires extensive practice by immature birds and takes up to seven years to master.^[37] Its old name of ossifrage ("bone breaker") relates to this habit. Less frequently, these birds have been observed trying to break bones (usually of a medium size) by hammering them with their bill directly into rocks while perched.^[13] During the breeding season they feed mainly on carrion. They prefer the limbs of sheep and other small mammals and they carry the food to the nest, unlike other vultures which feed their young by regurgitation.^[33]

Bearded vultures sometimes attack live prey, with perhaps greater regularity than any other vulture.^[13] Among these, tortoises seem to be especially favored depending on their local abundance. Tortoises preyed on may be nearly as heavy as the preying vulture. To kill tortoises, bearded vultures fly with them to some height and drop them to crack open the bulky reptiles' hard shells. Golden eagles have been observed to kill tortoises in the same way.^[13] Other live animals, up to nearly their own size, have been observed to be predaceously seized and dropped in flight. Among these are rock hyraxes, hares, marmots and, in one case, a 62 cm (24 in) long monitor lizard.^[13]^[36] Larger animals have been known to be attacked by bearded vultures, including ibex, Capra goats, chamois, and steenbok.^[13] These animals have been killed by being surprised by the large birds and battered with wings until they fall off precipitous rocky edges to their deaths; although in some cases these may be accidental killings when both the vulture and the mammal surprise each other.^[13] Many large animals killed by bearded vultures are unsteady young, or have appeared sickly or obviously injured.^[13] Humans have been anecdotally reported to have been killed in the same way. This is unconfirmed, however, and if it does happen, most biologists who have studied the birds generally agree it would be accidental on the part of the vulture.^[13] Occasionally smaller ground-dwelling birds, such as partridges and pigeons, have been reported eaten, possibly either as fresh carrion (which is usually ignored by these birds) or killed with beating wings by the vulture.^[13] When foraging for bones or live prey while in flight, bearded vultures fly fairly low over the rocky ground, staying around 2–4 m (6 ft 7 in – 13 ft 1 in) high.^[13] Occasionally, breeding pairs may forage and hunt together.^[13] In the Ethiopian Highlands, bearded vultures have adapted to living largely off human refuse.^[13]

Reproduction and life cycle

Gypaetus barbatus aureus egg

G. b. hemachalanus egg

Nestling

Juvenile

The bearded vulture occupies an enormous territory year-round. It may forage over 2 km² (0.77 sq mi) each day. The breeding period is variable, being December through September in Eurasia, November to June in the Indian subcontinent, October to May in Ethiopia, throughout the year in eastern Africa, and May to January in southern Africa.^[13] Although generally solitary, the bond between a breeding pair is often considerably close. Biparental monogamous care occurs in the bearded vulture.^[38] In a few cases, polyandry has been recorded in the species.^[13] The territorial and breeding display between bearded vultures is often spectacular, involving the showing of talons, tumbling, and spiraling while in solo flight. The large birds also regularly lock feet with each other and fall some distance through the sky with each other.^[13] In Europe, the breeding pairs of bearded vultures are estimated to be 120.^[39] The mean productivity of the bearded vulture is 0.43±0.28 fledgings per breeding pair per year and the breeding success averaged 0.56±0.30 fledgings per pair with clutches/year.^[40]

The nest is a massive pile of sticks, that goes from around 1 m (3 ft 3 in) across and 69 cm (27 in) deep when first constructed up to 2.5 m (8 ft 2 in) across and 1 m (3 ft 3 in) deep, with a covering of various animal matter from food, after repeated uses. The female usually lays a clutch of 1 to 2 eggs, though 3 have been recorded on rare occasions,^[13] which are incubated for 53 to 60 days. After hatching, the young spend 100 to 130 days in the nest before fledging. The young may be dependent on the parents for up to 2 years, forcing the parents to nest in alternate years on a regular basis.^[13] Typically, the bearded vulture nests in caves and on ledges and rock outcrops or caves on steep rock walls, so are very difficult for nest-predating mammals to access.^[36] Wild bearded vultures have a mean lifespan of 21.4 years,^[41] but have lived for up to at least 45 years in captivity.^[42]

Threats

The bearded vulture is one of the most endangered European bird species as over the last century its abundance and breeding range have drastically declined.^[43] It naturally occurs at low densities, with anywhere from a dozen to 500 pairs now being found in each mountain range in Eurasia where the species breeds. The species is most common in Ethiopia, where an estimated 1,400 to 2,200 are believed to breed.^[13] Relatively large, healthy numbers seem to occur in some parts of the Himalayas as well. It was largely wiped out in Europe and, by the beginning of the 20th century, the only substantial population was in the Spanish and French Pyrenees. Since then, it has been successfully reintroduced to the Swiss and Italian Alps, from where they have spread into France.^[13] They have also declined somewhat in parts of Asia and Africa, though less severely than in Europe.^[13]

Many raptor species were shielded from anthropogenic influences in previously underdeveloped areas therefore they are greatly impacted as the human population rises and infrastructure increases in underdeveloped areas. The increase in human population and infrastructure results in the declines of the bearded vulture populations today. The increase of infrastructure includes the building of houses, roads, and power lines. A major issue with infrastructure and bird species populations is collision with power lines.^[44] The declines of the bearded vulture populations have been documented throughout their range resulting from a decrease in habitat space, fatal collisions with energy infrastructure, reduced food availability, poisons left out for carnivores and direct persecution in the form of trophy hunting.^[45]

This species is currently listed as near threatened by the IUCN Red List last accessed on 1 October 2016, and the population continues to decline.^{[citation needed]}

Conservation

Mitigation plans have been established to reduce the population declines in bearded vulture populations. One of these plans includes the South African Biodiversity Management Plan that has been ratified by the government to stop the population decline in the short term. Actions that have been implemented include the mitigation of existing and proposed energy structures to prevent collision risks, the improved management of supplementary feeding sites as well to reduce the populations from being exposed to human persecution and poisoning accidents and outreach programmes that are aimed at reducing poisoning incidents.^[44]

The Foundation for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture (Spanish: Fundación para la Conservación del Quebrantahuesos), established in Spain in 1995, was created in response to the national population dropping to 30 specimens by the end of the 20th century. Focused on conserving the species in the Pyrenees, it also returned the species to other already extinct areas such as the Picos de Europa in the north of the country or the Sierra de Cazorla, in the south. After 25 years of work, the Foundation reported that they had managed to recover the species, with more than 1,000 specimens throughout the country.^[46]^[47]

Reintroduction in the Alps

Efforts to reintroduce the bearded vulture began in the 1970s in the French Alps. Zoologists Paul Geroudet and Gilbert Amigues attempted to release vultures that had been captured in Afghanistan, but this approach proved unsuccessful: it was too difficult to capture the vultures in the first place, and too many died in transport on their way to France. A second attempt was made in 1987, using a technique called "hacking", in which young individuals (from 90 to 100 days) from zoological parks would be taken from the nest and placed in a protected area in the Alps. As they were still unable to fly at that age, the chicks were hand-fed by humans until the birds learned to fly and were able to reach food without human assistance. This method has proven more successful, with over 200 birds released in the Alps from 1987 to 2015, and a bearded vulture population has reestablished itself in the Alps.^[48]

In culture

The bearded vulture is considered a threatened species in Iran. Iranian mythology considers the rare bearded vulture (Persian: هما; lit. 'Homa') the symbol of luck and happiness. It was believed that if the shadow of a Homa fell on one, he would rise to sovereignty^[49] and anyone shooting the bird would die in forty days. The habit of eating bones and apparently not killing living animals was noted by Sa'di in Gulistan, written in 1258, and Emperor Jahangir had a bird's crop examined in 1625 to find that it was filled with bones.^[50]

The ancient Greeks used ornithomancers to guide their political decisions: bearded vultures, or ossifrage, were one of the few species of birds that could yield valid signs to these soothsayers.

The Greek playwright Aeschylus was said to have been killed in 456 or 455 BC by a tortoise dropped by an eagle who mistook his bald head for a stone—if this incident did occur, the bearded vulture is a likely candidate for the "eagle" in this story.

In the Bible/Torah, the bearded vulture, as the ossifrage, is among the birds forbidden to be eaten (Leviticus 11:13).

In 1944, Shimon Peres and David Ben-Gurion found a nest of bearded vultures in the Negev desert. The bird is called peres in Hebrew, and Shimon Persky liked it so much he adopted it as his surname.^[51]^[52]

References

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^ Gill F, D Donsker & P Rasmussen (Eds). 2021. IOC World Bird List (v11.1). doi:10.14344/IOC.ML.11.1
^ "Homa- A Mythical Bird of Iranian Legends". February 2022.
^ "Bearded vulture". wwf.panda.org.
^ Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 87.
^ ^a ^b Mayr, Ernst; Cottrell, G. William, eds. (1979). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 304.
^ Edwards, George (1750). A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Vol. 3. London: Printed for the author at the College of Physicians. p. 106, Plate 106.
^ Hartert, Ernst (1909). Die Vögel der paläarktischen Fauna (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: R. Friedländer und Sohn. p. 1194.
^ Storr, Gottlieb Conrad Christian (1784). Alpenreise vom jahre 1781. Vol. 1. Leipzig. p. 69.
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^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae Ferguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D.A. (2001). "Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus". Raptors of the World. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 413. ISBN 978-0-618-12762-7.
^ Beaman, M.; Madge, S. (1999). The Handbook of Bird Identification for Europe and the Western Palearctic. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02726-5.
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^ Margalida, A.; Braun, M. S.; Negro, J. J.; Schulze-Hagen, K.; Wink, M. (2019). "Cosmetic colouring by Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus : still no evidence for an antibacterial function". PeerJ. 7: e6783. doi:10.7717/peerj.6783. PMC 6525594. PMID 31143529.
^ Meves, Friedrich Wilhelm (1875). "Ueber die rostrothe Farbe des Geieradlers" (PDF). Journal für Ornithologie. 23: 434–439. doi:10.1007/BF02023162.
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^ Houston, D.C.; Copsey, J.A. (1994). "Bone digestion and intestinal morphology of the Bearded Vulture" (PDF). Journal of Raptor Research. 28 (2): 73–78.
^ Margalida, A.; Martínez, J. M., eds. (2018). El Quebrantahuesos en España (PDF). Ciudad Real, España: Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos.
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^ "ZĂGAN Gypaetus barbatus". SOR. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2021.
^ Irina Marica (9 July 2016). "Bearded vulture flies over Romania for the first time in 83 years". romania-insider.com.
^ Laurențiu Manolache (27 December 2016). "Aventurile imaturului Adonis, probabil cel mai vagabond zăgan din Europa". pressone.ro (in Romanian).
^ Brown, C.J. (2010). "Distribution and status of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in southern Africa". Ostrich. 63 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1080/00306525.1992.9634172.
^ "Bearded Vulture". Armenian Bird Census Council. 2017. Archived from the original on 29 May 2019. Retrieved 11 February 2017.
^ Bruce, C. G. (1923). The assault on Mount Everest 1922. London: Longmans, Green and Co.
^ Subedi, T. R.; Anadón, J.D.; Baral, H.S.; Viran, M.Z.; Sah, S.A.M. (2020). "Breeding habitat and nest-site selection of Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the Annapurna Himalaya Range of Nepal". Ibis. 162 (1): 153–161. doi:10.1111/ibi.12698. S2CID 91797199.
^ Morris, S. (2016). "Spectacular bearded vulture spotted for first time in UK". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 October 2020.
^ Viles, S. (2020). "Bearded Vulture: historic vagrancy and current European status". BirdGuides.com.
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^ Craves, J. (2018). "Why the Bearded Vulture's diet is the strangest among all birds". Archived from the original on 30 March 2023.
^ ADW: Gypaetus barbatus - Animal Diversity Web
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^ Donazar, J. A.; Hiraldo, F.; Bustamante, J. (1993). "Factors Influencing Nest Site Selection, Breeding Density and Breeding Success in the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus)". Journal of Applied Ecology. 30 (3): 504–514. Bibcode:1993JApEc..30..504D. doi:10.2307/2404190. hdl:10261/47110. JSTOR 2404190.
^ Margalida, A.; Garcia, D.; Bertran, J.; Heredia, R. (2003). "Breeding biology and success of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the eastern Pyrenees". Ibis. 145 (2): 244–252. doi:10.1046/j.1474-919X.2003.00148.x.
^ Brown, C.J. (1997). "Population dynamics of the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus in southern Africa". African Journal of Ecology. 35 (1): 53–63. Bibcode:1997AfJEc..35...53B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1997.048-89048.x.
^ Antor, R.J.; Margalida, A.; Frey, H.; Heredia, R.; Lorente, L.; Sesé, J.A. (2007). "First Breeding age in captive and wild Bearded Vultures". Acta Ornithologica. 42 (1): 114–118. doi:10.3161/068.042.0106.
^ Bretagnolle, V.; Inchausti, P.; Seguin, J.-F.; Thibault, J.-C. (2004). "Evaluation of the extinction risk and of conservation alternatives for a very small insular population: the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus in Corsica". Biological Conservation. 120 (1): 19–30. Bibcode:2004BCons.120...19B. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.01.023.
^ ^a ^b Kruger, S.; Reid, T.; Amar, A. (2014). "Differential Range Use between Age Classes of Southern African Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus". PLOS ONE. 9 (12): e114920. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k4920K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0114920. PMC 4281122. PMID 25551614.
^ "Lammergeier". howstuffworks.com. Discovery Communications. 2008. Archived from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved 29 May 2011.
^ "Cómo el quebrantahuesos ha pasado de 30 ejemplares a más de 1.000 en 25 años en España". Nius Diario (in European Spanish). 1 December 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
^ Madrid, Isambard Wilkinson. "Bearded vultures soar to a record breeding season". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 4 December 2021.
^ RÉINTRODUCTION. Le retour des gypaètes, Pro Gypaète. 31 May 2018
^ Pollard, J.R.T. (2009). "The Lammergeyer Comparative Descriptions in Aristotle and Pliny". Greece and Rome. 16 (46): 23–28. doi:10.1017/s0017383500009311. S2CID 162827880.
^ Phillott, D.C. (1906). "Note on the Huma or Lammergeyer". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 2 (10): 532–533.
^ Marche, S. (2008). "Flight of Fancy". The New Republic. Retrieved 31 May 2011.
^ Leshem, Y. (2016) Farewell Shimon Peres. birds.org.il

^[1]

External links

Video of bearded vulture shattering bones into smaller pieces on which it then feeds at ARKive
Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds
Facts and Characteristics: Bearded Vulture at Vulture Territory
The bearded vulture in Spain
Cine and photo work about the Bearded Vulture in the Alps
diet information
Bearded Vulture & The Snow Wolf: A Winter's Tale, BBC
Robert, Isabelle; Vigne, Jean-Denis (July 2002). "The Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus) as an Accumulator of Archaeological Bones. Late Glacial Assemblages and Present-day Reference Data in Corsica (Western Mediterranean)". Journal of Archaeological Science. 29 (7): 763–777. Bibcode:2002JArSc..29..763R. doi:10.1006/jasc.2001.0778.

^ Bildstein, Keith L. (2022). Vultures of the World: Essential Ecology and Conservation. Cornell University Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 9781501765025.

[iucn-1] BirdLife International (2021). "Gypaetus barbatus". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2021: e.T22695174A154813652. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2021-3.RLTS.T22695174A154813652.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.

[2] Gill F, D Donsker & P Rasmussen (Eds). 2021. IOC World Bird List (v11.1). doi:10.14344/IOC.ML.11.1

[3] "Homa- A Mythical Bird of Iranian Legends". February 2022.

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[5] Linnaeus, Carl (1758). Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis (in Latin). Vol. 1 (10th ed.). Holmiae (Stockholm): Laurentii Salvii. p. 87.

[mayr-6] Mayr, Ernst; Cottrell, G. William, eds. (1979). Check-List of Birds of the World. Vol. 1 (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: Museum of Comparative Zoology. p. 304.

[7] Edwards, George (1750). A Natural History of Uncommon Birds. Vol. 3. London: Printed for the author at the College of Physicians. p. 106, Plate 106.

[8] Hartert, Ernst (1909). Die Vögel der paläarktischen Fauna (in German). Vol. 2. Berlin: R. Friedländer und Sohn. p. 1194.

[9] Storr, Gottlieb Conrad Christian (1784). Alpenreise vom jahre 1781. Vol. 1. Leipzig. p. 69.

[ioc-10] Gill, Frank; Donsker, David; Rasmussen, Pamela, eds. (December 2023). "Hoatzin, New World vultures, Secretarybird, raptors". IOC World Bird List Version 14.1. International Ornithologists' Union. Retrieved 7 March 2024.

[11] Jobling, James A. (2010). The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names. London: Christopher Helm. p. 182, 67. ISBN 978-1-4081-2501-4.

[12] Andrew, D. G. (2008). "Lammergeiers and lambs". British Birds. 101 (4): 215.

[RaptorsWorld-13] ^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae Ferguson-Lees, J.; Christie, D.A. (2001). "Lammergeier Gypaetus barbatus". Raptors of the World. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin. p. 413. ISBN 978-0-618-12762-7.

[14] Beaman, M.; Madge, S. (1999). The Handbook of Bird Identification for Europe and the Western Palearctic. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-02726-5.

[15] Lee, W-S; Koo, T-H; Park, J-Y (2005). A Field Guide to the Birds of Korea. p. 98. ISBN 978-8995141533.

[16] Margalida, A.; Braun, M. S.; Negro, J. J.; Schulze-Hagen, K.; Wink, M. (2019). "Cosmetic colouring by Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus : still no evidence for an antibacterial function". PeerJ. 7: e6783. doi:10.7717/peerj.6783. PMC 6525594. PMID 31143529.

[17] Meves, Friedrich Wilhelm (1875). "Ueber die rostrothe Farbe des Geieradlers" (PDF). Journal für Ornithologie. 23: 434–439. doi:10.1007/BF02023162.

[18] Arlettaz, Raphaël; Christe, Philippe; Surai, Peter F.; Pape Møller, Anders (2002). "Deliberate rusty staining of plumage in the bearded vulture: does function precede art?". Animal Behaviour. 64 (3): F1 – F3. doi:10.1006/anbe.2002.3097.

[acid-19] Houston, D.C.; Copsey, J.A. (1994). "Bone digestion and intestinal morphology of the Bearded Vulture" (PDF). Journal of Raptor Research. 28 (2): 73–78.

[20] Margalida, A.; Martínez, J. M., eds. (2018). El Quebrantahuesos en España (PDF). Ciudad Real, España: Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos.

[21] Granit, B. (2014). "News from the field - Daily Updates". פורטל צפרות.

[22] "ZĂGAN Gypaetus barbatus". SOR. Archived from the original on 11 September 2017. Retrieved 16 March 2021.

[23] Irina Marica (9 July 2016). "Bearded vulture flies over Romania for the first time in 83 years". romania-insider.com.

[24] Laurențiu Manolache (27 December 2016). "Aventurile imaturului Adonis, probabil cel mai vagabond zăgan din Europa". pressone.ro (in Romanian).

[Ostrich-25] Brown, C.J. (2010). "Distribution and status of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in southern Africa". Ostrich. 63 (1): 1–9. doi:10.1080/00306525.1992.9634172.

[26] "Bearded Vulture". Armenian Bird Census Council. 2017. Archived from the original on 29 May 2019. Retrieved 11 February 2017.

[27] Bruce, C. G. (1923). The assault on Mount Everest 1922. London: Longmans, Green and Co.

[28] Subedi, T. R.; Anadón, J.D.; Baral, H.S.; Viran, M.Z.; Sah, S.A.M. (2020). "Breeding habitat and nest-site selection of Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the Annapurna Himalaya Range of Nepal". Ibis. 162 (1): 153–161. doi:10.1111/ibi.12698. S2CID 91797199.

[29] Morris, S. (2016). "Spectacular bearded vulture spotted for first time in UK". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 October 2020.

[30] Viles, S. (2020). "Bearded Vulture: historic vagrancy and current European status". BirdGuides.com.

[31] Birch, Simon (2020). "Birdwatchers flock to Peak District after rare sighting of bearded vulture in UK". The Guardian. Retrieved 11 October 2020.

[32] "Bearded vulture: Crowds flock to see rare bird over Lincolnshire fens". BBC News. 2020. Retrieved 11 October 2020.

[Margalida_et_al._2009-33] Margalida, A.; Bertra, J.; Heredia, R. (2009). "Diet and food preferences of the endangered Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus: a basis for their conservation". Ibis. 151 (2): 235–243. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919x.2008.00904.x.

[34] Craves, J. (2018). "Why the Bearded Vulture's diet is the strangest among all birds". Archived from the original on 30 March 2023.

[35] ADW: Gypaetus barbatus - Animal Diversity Web

[PBS-Bhutan-36] "Lammergeier Vulture". The Living Edens: Bhutan. PBS. Retrieved 30 May 2011.

[BBC-BeardedVulture-37] "Lammergeier (video, facts and news)". Wildlife Finder. BBC. Archived from the original on 9 December 2017. Retrieved 29 May 2011.

[Margalida_et_al._2000-38] Margalida, A.; Bertran, J. (2008). "Breeding behaviour of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus: minimal sexual differences in parental activities". Ibis. 142 (2): 225–234. doi:10.1111/j.1474-919X.2000.tb04862.x.

[Donazar-39] Donazar, J. A.; Hiraldo, F.; Bustamante, J. (1993). "Factors Influencing Nest Site Selection, Breeding Density and Breeding Success in the Bearded Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus)". Journal of Applied Ecology. 30 (3): 504–514. Bibcode:1993JApEc..30..504D. doi:10.2307/2404190. hdl:10261/47110. JSTOR 2404190.

[Margalida_et_al._2003-40] Margalida, A.; Garcia, D.; Bertran, J.; Heredia, R. (2003). "Breeding biology and success of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the eastern Pyrenees". Ibis. 145 (2): 244–252. doi:10.1046/j.1474-919X.2003.00148.x.

[CJBrown1997-41] Brown, C.J. (1997). "Population dynamics of the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus in southern Africa". African Journal of Ecology. 35 (1): 53–63. Bibcode:1997AfJEc..35...53B. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1997.048-89048.x.

[RJAntor2007-42] Antor, R.J.; Margalida, A.; Frey, H.; Heredia, R.; Lorente, L.; Sesé, J.A. (2007). "First Breeding age in captive and wild Bearded Vultures". Acta Ornithologica. 42 (1): 114–118. doi:10.3161/068.042.0106.

[43] Bretagnolle, V.; Inchausti, P.; Seguin, J.-F.; Thibault, J.-C. (2004). "Evaluation of the extinction risk and of conservation alternatives for a very small insular population: the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus in Corsica". Biological Conservation. 120 (1): 19–30. Bibcode:2004BCons.120...19B. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2004.01.023.

[ReferenceA-44] Kruger, S.; Reid, T.; Amar, A. (2014). "Differential Range Use between Age Classes of Southern African Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus". PLOS ONE. 9 (12): e114920. Bibcode:2014PLoSO...9k4920K. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0114920. PMC 4281122. PMID 25551614.

[howstuffworks-45] "Lammergeier". howstuffworks.com. Discovery Communications. 2008. Archived from the original on 12 July 2011. Retrieved 29 May 2011.

[46] "Cómo el quebrantahuesos ha pasado de 30 ejemplares a más de 1.000 en 25 años en España". Nius Diario (in European Spanish). 1 December 2021. Retrieved 4 December 2021.

[47] Madrid, Isambard Wilkinson. "Bearded vultures soar to a record breeding season". The Times. ISSN 0140-0460. Retrieved 4 December 2021.

[48] RÉINTRODUCTION. Le retour des gypaètes, Pro Gypaète. 31 May 2018

[49] Pollard, J.R.T. (2009). "The Lammergeyer Comparative Descriptions in Aristotle and Pliny". Greece and Rome. 16 (46): 23–28. doi:10.1017/s0017383500009311. S2CID 162827880.

[50] Phillott, D.C. (1906). "Note on the Huma or Lammergeyer". Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. 2 (10): 532–533.

[51] Marche, S. (2008). "Flight of Fancy". The New Republic. Retrieved 31 May 2011.

[52] Leshem, Y. (2016) Farewell Shimon Peres. birds.org.il

[53] Bildstein, Keith L. (2022). Vultures of the World: Essential Ecology and Conservation. Cornell University Press. pp. 58–59. ISBN 9781501765025.

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@@ Line 10: / Line 10: @@
 | genus = Gypaetus
 | parent_authority = [[Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr|Storr]], 1784
+| display_parents = 2
 | species = barbatus
 | authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|1758]])
@@ Line 21: / Line 22: @@
 }}
-The '''bearded vulture''' ('''''Gypaetus barbatus'''''), also known as the '''lammergeier''' and '''ossifrage''', is a very large [[bird of prey]] in the [[Monotypic taxon|monotypic]] genus '''''Gypaetus'''''. Traditionally considered an [[Old World vulture]], it actually forms a separate minor lineage of [[Accipitridae]] together with the [[Egyptian vulture]] (''Neophron percnopterus''), its closest living relative. It is not much more closely related to the Old World vultures proper than to, for example, [[hawk]]s, and differs from the former by its feathered neck. Although dissimilar, the Egyptian and bearded vulture each have a [[Lozenge (shape)|lozenge]]-shaped tail—unusual among birds of prey.
+The '''bearded vulture''' ('''''Gypaetus barbatus'''''), also known as the '''lammergeier''' and '''ossifrage''', is a very large [[bird of prey]] in the [[Monotypic taxon|monotypic]] genus '''''Gypaetus'''''. Traditionally considered an [[Old World vulture]], it actually forms a separate minor lineage of [[Accipitridae]] together with the [[Egyptian vulture]] (''Neophron percnopterus'') and [[Palm-nut vulture]] (''Gypohierax angolensis''), its closest living relatives. It is not much more closely related to the Old World vultures proper than to, for example, [[hawk]]s, and differs from the former by its feathered neck. Although dissimilar, the Egyptian and bearded vulture each have a [[Lozenge (shape)|lozenge]]-shaped tail—unusual among birds of prey.
-It is vernacularly known as ''[[Huma bird|Homa]]'', a divine bird in Iranian mythology.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://irantripedia.com/homa-a-mythical-bird-of-iranian-legends/|title=Homa- A Mythical Bird of Iranian Legends|date=February 2022 }}</ref>
+It is vernacularly known as ''[[Huma bird|Homa]]'', a bird in Iranian mythology.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://irantripedia.com/homa-a-mythical-bird-of-iranian-legends/|title=Homa- A Mythical Bird of Iranian Legends|date=February 2022 }}</ref>
-The bearded vulture population is thought to be in decline; in 2004, it was classified on the [[IUCN Red List]] as [[least concern]] but has been listed as [[near threatened]] since 2014. It lives and breeds on crags in high mountains in southern Europe, East Africa, the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Tibet]],<ref name=iucn/> and the [[Caucasus]].<ref name=Gavashelishvili5>{{cite journal |last1=Gavashelishvili |first1=A. |last2=McGrady |first2=M.J. |year=2006 |title=Breeding site selection by bearded vulture (''Gypaetus barbatus'') and Eurasian griffon (''Gyps fulvus'') in the Caucasus |journal=Animal Conservation |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=159–170 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-1795.2005.00017.x|bibcode=2006AnCon...9..159G |s2cid=83478729 }}</ref><ref name=Gavashelishvili6>{{cite journal |last1=Gavashelishvili |first1=A. |last2=McGrady |first2=M.J. |year=2006 |title=Geographic information system-based modelling of vulture response to carcass appearance in the Caucasus |journal=Journal of Zoology |volume=269 |issue=3 |pages=365–372 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-7998.2006.00062.x}}</ref><ref name=Gavashelishvili8>{{cite journal |last1=Gavashelishvili |first1=A. |last2=McGrady |first2=M.J. |year=2007 |title=Radio-satellite telemetry of a territorial Bearded Vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'' in the Caucasus |journal=Vulture News |volume=56 |pages=4–13 |url=https://www.ajol.info/index.php/vulnew/article/view/37658/6974}}</ref> Females lay one or two [[egg (biology)|eggs]] in mid-winter that hatch at the beginning of spring. The bearded vulture is the only known vertebrate whose diet consists of 70–90% bone.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/our_focus/wildlife_practice/profiles/birds/bearded_vulture/ |publisher=wwf.panda.org |title=Bearded vulture}}</ref>
+The bearded vulture population is thought to be in decline; in 2004, it was classified on the [[IUCN Red List]] as [[least concern]] but has been listed as [[near threatened]] since 2014. It lives and breeds on crags in high mountains in Iran, southern Europe, East Africa, the [[Indian subcontinent]], [[Tibet]],<ref name=iucn/> and the [[Caucasus]]. Females lay one or two [[egg (biology)|eggs]] in mid-winter that hatch at the beginning of spring. The bearded vulture is the only known vertebrate whose diet consists of 70–90% bone.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://wwf.panda.org/discover/our_focus/wildlife_practice/profiles/birds/bearded_vulture/ |publisher=wwf.panda.org |title=Bearded vulture}}</ref>
 ==Taxonomy==
+The bearded vulture was [[Species description|formally described]] in 1758 by the Swedish naturalist [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|tenth edition]] of his ''[[Systema Naturae]]''. He placed it with the vultures and condors in the [[genus]] ''Vultur'' and coined the [[binomial name]] ''Vultur barbatus''.<ref>{{cite book | last=Linnaeus | first=Carl | author-link=Carl Linnaeus | year=1758 | title= Systema Naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis | volume=1 | edition=10th | page=87 | publisher=Laurentii Salvii | location=Holmiae (Stockholm) | language=Latin | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/726992 }}</ref><ref name=mayr>{{ cite book | editor1-last=Mayr | editor1-first=Ernst | editor1-link=Ernst Mayr | editor2-last=Cottrell | editor2-first=G. William | year=1979 | title=Check-List of Birds of the World | volume=1 | edition=2nd | publisher=Museum of Comparative Zoology | place=Cambridge, Massachusetts | page=304 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/16108944 }}</ref> Linnaeus based his account on the "bearded vulture" that had been described and illustrated in 1750 by the English naturalist [[George Edwards (naturalist)|George Edwards]]. Edwards had based his hand-coloured etching on a specimen that had been collected at Santa Cruz near the town of [[Oran]] in Algeria.<ref>{{ cite book | last=Edwards | first=George | author-link=George Edwards (naturalist) | year=1750 | title=A Natural History of Uncommon Birds | location=London | publisher=Printed for the author at the College of Physicians | volume=3 | page=106, Plate 106 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/50196266 }}</ref> Linnaeus specified the [[type locality (biology)|type locality]] as Africa, but in 1914 this was restricted to Santa Cruz by the German orthithologist [[Ernst Hartert]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Hartert | first=Ernst | author-link=Ernst Hartert | year=1909 | title=Die Vögel der paläarktischen Fauna | volume=2 | language=German | location=Berlin | publisher=R. Friedländer und Sohn | page=1194 | url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/14031737 }}<!--Mayr has a misprint and gives the page as 1294--></ref><ref name=mayr/> The bearded vulture is now the only species placed in the genus ''Gypaetus'' that was introduced in 1784 by the German naturalist [[Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr|Gottlieb Storr]].<ref>{{ cite book | last=Storr | first=Gottlieb Conrad Christian | author-link=Gottlieb Conrad Christian Storr | date=1784 | title=Alpenreise vom jahre 1781 | volume=1 | location=Leipzig | publisher= | page=69 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GZiPzgEACAAJ&pg=PA69 }}<!--apparently not available from BHL or IA--></ref><ref name=ioc>{{cite web| editor1-last=Gill | editor1-first=Frank | editor1-link=Frank Gill (ornithologist) | editor2-last=Donsker | editor2-first=David | editor3-last=Rasmussen | editor3-first=Pamela | editor3-link=Pamela C. Rasmussen | date=December 2023 | title=Hoatzin, New World vultures, Secretarybird, raptors | work=IOC World Bird List Version 14.1  | url=https://www.worldbirdnames.org/bow/raptors/| publisher=International Ornithologists' Union | access-date=7 March 2024 }}</ref> The genus name ''Gypaetus'' is from [[Ancient Greek]] ''gupaietos'', a corrupt form of ''hupaietos'' meaning "eagle" or "vulture". The specific epithet ''barbatus'' is [[Latin]] meaning "bearded" (from ''barba'', "beard").<ref>{{cite book | last=Jobling | first=James A. | year=2010| title=The Helm Dictionary of Scientific Bird Names | publisher=Christopher Helm | location=London | isbn=978-1-4081-2501-4 | page=[https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n182/mode/1up 182], [https://archive.org/stream/Helm_Dictionary_of_Scientific_Bird_Names_by_James_A._Jobling#page/n67/mode/1up 67] }}</ref> The name "lammergeier" originates from the [[German language|German]] word ''{{lang|de|Lämmergeier}}'', which means "lamb-vulture". The name stems from the belief that it attacked lambs.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Andrew |first=D. G. |year=2008 |title=Lammergeiers and lambs |journal=British Birds |volume=101 |issue=4 |page=215 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/51264863 }}</ref>
-''Vultur barbatus'' was the [[scientific name]] used by [[Carl Linnaeus]] in the [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|10th edition of ''Systema Naturae'']] (1758).<ref name="Linnaeus1758">{{cite book |last=Linnaeus |first=C. |author-link=Carl Linnaeus |year=1758 |title=Systema naturae per regna tria naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus, differentiis, synonymis, locis |volume=I |edition=Editio decima, reformata |page=87 |place=Holmiae |publisher=Laurentii Salvii |language=la |url=https://archive.org/details/mobot31753000798865/page/87/mode/1up}}</ref>
+Two [[subspecies]] are recognised:<ref name=ioc/>
+* ''G. b. barbatus'' ([[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758) (includes ''hemachalanus'' and ''aureus'') – south Europe and northwest Africa to northeast China through the Himalayas to Nepal and west Pakistan
+* ''G. b. meridionalis'' Keyserling & [[Johann Heinrich Blasius|Blasius, JH]], 1840 – southwest Arabia and northeast, east, south Africa
 ==Description==
+This bearded vulture is {{cvt|94|-|125|cm}} long with a [[wingspan]] of {{cvt|2.31|-|2.83|m}}.<ref name="RaptorsWorld" /> It weighs {{cvt|4.5|-|7.8|kg}}, with the nominate race averaging {{cvt|6.21|kg}} and ''G. b. meridionalis'' of Africa averaging {{cvt|5.7|kg}}.<ref name="RaptorsWorld" /> In Eurasia, vultures found around the Himalayas tend to be slightly larger than those from other mountain ranges.<ref name="RaptorsWorld" /> Females are slightly larger than males.<ref name="RaptorsWorld" /><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beaman |first1=M. |last2=Madge |first2=S. |title=The Handbook of Bird Identification for Europe and the Western Palearctic |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-691-02726-5}}</ref> It is essentially unmistakable with other vultures or indeed other birds in flight due to its long, narrow wings, with the [[wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] measuring {{cvt|71.5|-|91|cm}}, and long, wedge-shaped tail, which measures {{cvt|42.7|-|52|cm}} in length. The tail is longer than the width of the wing.<ref>Lee, W-S; Koo, T-H; Park, J-Y (2005). A Field Guide to the Birds of Korea. p. 98. {{ISBN|978-8995141533}}.</ref> The tarsus is relatively small for the bird's size, at {{cvt|8.8|-|10|cm}}. The proportions of the species have been compared to a [[falcon]], scaled to an enormous size.<ref name="RaptorsWorld" />
-[[File:Bearded vulture.jpg|thumb|A bearded vulture in the Puga valley in [[Ladakh]] in the Indian [[Himalayas]]]]
-This bird is {{cvt|94|-|125|cm}} long with a [[wingspan]] of {{cvt|2.31|-|2.83|m}}.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> It weighs {{cvt|4.5|-|7.8|kg}}, with the nominate race averaging {{cvt|6.21|kg}} and ''G. b. meridionalis'' of Africa averaging {{cvt|5.7|kg}}.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> In Eurasia, vultures found around the Himalayas tend to be slightly larger than those from other mountain ranges.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Females are slightly larger than males.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref>{{cite book |last1=Beaman |first1=M. |last2=Madge |first2=S. |title=The Handbook of Bird Identification for Europe and the Western Palearctic |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-691-02726-5}}</ref> It is essentially unmistakable with other vultures or indeed other birds in flight due to its long, narrow wings, with the [[wing chord (biology)|wing chord]] measuring {{cvt|71.5|-|91|cm}}, and long, wedge-shaped tail, which measures {{cvt|42.7|-|52|cm}} in length. The tail is longer than the width of the wing.<ref>Lee, W-S; Koo,T-H; Park, J-Y (2005). A Field Guide to the Birds of Korea. p. 98. {{ISBN|978-8995141533}}.</ref> The tarsus is relatively small for the bird's size, at {{cvt|8.8|-|10|cm}}. The proportions of the species have been compared to a [[falcon]], scaled to an enormous size.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>
-Unlike most vultures, the bearded vulture does not have a bald head. This species is relatively small-headed, although its neck is powerful and thick. It has a generally elongated, slender shape, sometimes appearing bulkier due to the often hunched back of these birds. The gait on the ground is waddling and the feet are large and powerful. The adult is mostly dark gray, rusty, and whitish in color. It is grey-blue to grey-black above. The creamy-coloured forehead contrasts against a black band across the eyes and lores and bristles under the chin, which form a black beard that give the species its English name. Bearded vultures are variably orange or rust of plumage on their head, breast, and leg feathers, but this is actually cosmetic. This colouration comes from dust-bathing, rubbing mud on its body, or drinking mineral-rich waters.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Margalida |first1=Antoni |last2=Braun |first2=Markus S. |last3=Negro |first3=Juan José |last4=Schulze-Hagen |first4=Karl |last5=Wink |first5=Michael |date=2019-05-15 |title=Cosmetic colouring by Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus : still no evidence for an antibacterial function |journal=PeerJ |language=en |volume=7 |pages=e6783 |doi=10.7717/peerj.6783 |issn=2167-8359 |pmc=6525594 |pmid=31143529 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The tail feathers and wings are gray. The juvenile bird is dark black-brown over most of the body, with a buff-brown breast and takes five years to reach full maturity. The bearded vulture is silent, apart from shrill whistles in their breeding displays and a falcon-like ''cheek-acheek'' call made around the nest.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>
+Unlike most vultures, the bearded vulture does not have a bald head. This species is relatively small-headed, although its neck is powerful and thick. It has a generally elongated, slender shape, sometimes appearing bulkier due to the often hunched back of these birds. The gait on the ground is waddling and the feet are large and powerful. The adult is mostly dark gray, rusty, and whitish in color. It is grey-blue to grey-black above. The creamy-coloured forehead contrasts against a black band across the eyes and lores and bristles under the chin, which form a black beard that give the species its English name. Bearded vultures are variably orange or rust of plumage on their head, breast, and leg feathers, but this is thought to be cosmetic. This colouration comes from dust-bathing or rubbing iron-rich mud on its body.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Margalida |first1=A. |last2=Braun |first2=M. S. |last3=Negro |first3=J. J. |last4=Schulze-Hagen |first4=K. |last5=Wink |first5=M. |date=2019 |title=Cosmetic colouring by Bearded Vultures ''Gypaetus barbatus'' : still no evidence for an antibacterial function |journal=PeerJ |volume=7 |pages=e6783 |doi=10.7717/peerj.6783 |pmc=6525594 |pmid=31143529 |doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Meves |first=Friedrich Wilhelm |year=1875 |title=Ueber die rostrothe Farbe des Geieradlers |url=https://www.zobodat.at/pdf/Journal-fuer-Ornithologie_23_1875_0434-0439.pdf |journal=Journal für Ornithologie |volume=23 |pages=434–439|doi=10.1007/BF02023162 }}</ref> They also transfer the brown colour to the eggs.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Arlettaz |first1=Raphaël |last2=Christe |first2=Philippe |last3=Surai |first3=Peter F. |last4=Pape Møller |first4=Anders |date=2002 |title=Deliberate rusty staining of plumage in the bearded vulture: does function precede art? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0003347202930976 |journal=Animal Behaviour |language=en |volume=64 |issue=3 |pages=F1–F3 |doi=10.1006/anbe.2002.3097}}</ref> The tail feathers and wings are gray. The juvenile bird is dark black-brown over most of the body, with a buff-brown breast and takes five years to reach full maturity. The bearded vulture is silent, apart from shrill whistles in their breeding displays and a falcon-like ''cheek-acheek'' call made around the nest.<ref name="RaptorsWorld" />
-<gallery mode="packed" heights="130">
-File:023 Wild Bearded Vulture Switzerland Pfyn-Finges Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|Bearded vulture in flight at Pfyn-Finges, [[Switzerland]]
-File:Bartgeier 0505262.jpg|The adult has a buff-yellow body and head.
-File:Lammergeier or Bearded Vulture, Gypaetus barbatus. In flight.jpg|Adult in flight from below (note the tail shape)
-File:Bartgeier Gypaetus barbatus front2 Richard Bartz.jpg|Adult spreading wings
-File:Bartgeier Gypaetus barbatus front Richard Bartz.jpg|A bearded vulture at Innsbruck Alpine Zoo (Austria)
-</gallery>
 ===Physiology===
-The acid concentration in the bearded vulture's stomach has been estimated to be of [[pH]] about 1. Large bones will be digested in about 24 hours, aided by slow mixing or churning of the stomach content. The high fat content of bone marrow makes the net energy value of bone almost as good as that of muscle, even if bone is less completely digested. A skeleton left on a mountain will dehydrate and become protected from bacterial degradation, and the bearded vulture can return to consume the remainder of a carcass even months after the soft parts have been consumed by other animals, larvae, and bacteria.<ref name="acid">{{cite journal |title=Bone Digestion and Intestinal Morphology of the Bearded Vulture |last1=Houston|first1=D.C. |last2=Copsey|first2=J.A. |year=1994 |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=73–78 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v028n02/p00073-p00078.pdf}}</ref>
+The acid concentration in the bearded vulture's stomach has been estimated to be of [[pH]] about 1. Large bones are digested in about 24 hours, aided by slow mixing or churning of the stomach content. The high fat content of bone marrow makes the net energy value of bone almost as good as that of muscle, even if bone is less completely digested. A skeleton left on a mountain will dehydrate and become protected from bacterial degradation, and the bearded vulture can return to consume the remainder of a carcass even months after the soft parts have been consumed by other animals, larvae, and bacteria.<ref name=acid>{{cite journal |title=Bone digestion and intestinal morphology of the Bearded Vulture |last1=Houston|first1=D.C. |last2=Copsey|first2=J.A. |year=1994 |journal=Journal of Raptor Research |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=73–78 |url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jrr/v028n02/p00073-p00078.pdf}}</ref>
 ==Distribution and habitat==
+[[File:023 Wild Bearded Vulture Switzerland Pfyn-Finges Photo by Giles Laurent.jpg|alt=Wild bearded vulture at Gemmi Pass, Leukerbad|thumb|Wild bearded vulture in flight at Pfyn-Finges, [[Switzerland]]]]
-The bearded vulture is sparsely distributed across a vast range. It occurs in mountainous regions in the [[Pyrenees]], the [[Alps]], the [[Arabian Peninsula]], the [[Caucasus]] region, the [[Zagros Mountains]], the [[Alborz]], the [[Koh-i-Baba]] in [[Bamyan]], [[Afghanistan]], the [[Altai Mountains]], the [[Himalayas]], Ladakh in northern India, and western and central [[China]].<ref name=iucn/> In Africa, it lives in the [[Atlas Mountains]], the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] and south from [[Sudan]] to northeastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], central [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]]. An isolated population inhabits the [[Drakensberg]] in [[South Africa]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld>{{cite book |author1=Ferguson-Lees, J. |author-link=James Ferguson-Lees |author2=Christie, D.A. |year=2001 |title=Raptors of the World |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-618-12762-7 |place=Boston, New York |chapter=Lammergeier ''Gypaetus barbatus'' |page=413 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlIztc05HTQC&pg=PA413}}</ref> It has been reintroduced in several places in Spain, such as the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura and [[Las Villas (Jaén)|Las Villas Jaén]], the [[Province of Castellón]] and [[Asturias]]. The resident population as of 2018 was estimated at 1,200 to 1,500 individuals.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Margalida, A. |editor2=Martínez, J. M. |date=2018 |title=El Quebrantahuesos en España |publisher=Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos |place=Ciudad Real, España |url=https://www.irec.es/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Monografico-quebrantahuesos-Espana-IREC-2020.pdf}}</ref>
+[[File:Bearded vulture.jpg|thumb|A bearded vulture in the Puga valley in [[Ladakh]] in the Indian [[Himalayas]]]]
+The bearded vulture is sparsely distributed across a vast range. It occurs in mountainous regions in the [[Pyrenees]], the [[Alps]], the [[Arabian Peninsula]], the [[Caucasus]] region, the [[Zagros Mountains]] and [[Alborz Mountains]] in Iran, the [[Koh-i-Baba]] in [[Bamyan]], [[Afghanistan]], the [[Altai Mountains]], the [[Himalayas]], Ladakh in northern India, and western and central [[China]].<ref name=iucn/> In Africa, it lives in the [[Atlas Mountains]], the [[Ethiopian Highlands]] and south from [[Sudan]] to northeastern [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], central [[Kenya]], and northern [[Tanzania]]. An isolated population inhabits the [[Drakensberg]] in [[South Africa]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld>{{cite book |author1=Ferguson-Lees, J. |author-link=James Ferguson-Lees |author2=Christie, D.A. |year=2001 |title=Raptors of the World |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-618-12762-7 |place=Boston, New York |chapter=Lammergeier ''Gypaetus barbatus'' |page=413 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hlIztc05HTQC&pg=PA413}}</ref> It has been reintroduced in several places in Spain, such as the Sierras de Cazorla, Segura and [[Las Villas (Jaén)|Las Villas Jaén]], the [[Province of Castellón]] and [[Asturias]]. The resident population as of 2018 was estimated at 1,200 to 1,500 individuals.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Margalida, A. |editor2=Martínez, J. M. |date=2018 |title=El Quebrantahuesos en España |publisher=Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos |place=Ciudad Real, España |url=https://www.irec.es/wp-content/uploads/2020/07/Monografico-quebrantahuesos-Espana-IREC-2020.pdf}}</ref>
 In [[Israel]] it is [[local extinction|locally extinct]] as a breeder since 1981, but young birds have been reported in 2000, 2004, and 2016.<ref>{{cite web |author=Granit, B. |date=2014 |title=News from the field - Daily Updates |url=https://www.birds.org.il/en/article/id/363 |website=פורטל צפרות}}</ref> The species is extinct in [[Romania]], the last specimens from the [[Carpathians]] being shot in 1927.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pasaridinromania.sor.ro/Zagan |title=ZĂGAN ''Gypaetus barbatus'' |work=SOR |access-date=16 March 2021 |archive-date=11 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170911224829/http://pasaridinromania.sor.ro/Zagan |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, unconfirmed sightings of the bearded vulture happened in the 2000s, and in 2016 a specimen from a restoration project in France also flew over the country before returning to the Alps.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.romania-insider.com/bearded-vulture-flies-romania-first-time-83-years |title=Bearded vulture flies over Romania for the first time in 83 years |author=Irina Marica |publisher=romania-insider.com |date=9 July 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://pressone.ro/aventurile-imaturului-adonis-probabil-cel-mai-vagabond-zagan-din-europa |title=Aventurile imaturului Adonis, probabil cel mai vagabond zăgan din Europa |language=ro |author=Laurențiu Manolache |website=pressone.ro|date=27 December 2016}}</ref>
@@ Line 53: / Line 51: @@
 In southern Africa, the total population as of 2010 was estimated at 408 adult birds and 224 young birds of all age classes therefore giving an estimate of about 632 birds.<ref name=Ostrich>{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=C.J. |title=Distribution and status of the Bearded Vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'' in southern Africa |journal=Ostrich |date=2010 |volume=63 |issue=1 |pages=1–9 |doi=10.1080/00306525.1992.9634172}}</ref>
-In [[Ethiopia]], it is common at [[garbage dumps]] tips on the outskirts of small villages and towns. Although it occasionally descends to {{cvt|300|-|600|m}}, the bearded vulture is rare below an elevation of {{cvt|1000|m}} and normally resides above {{cvt|2000|m}} in some parts of its range. It typically lives around or above the [[tree line]] which are often near the tops of the mountains, at up to {{cvt|2000|m}} in Europe, {{cvt|4500|m}} in Africa and {{cvt|5000|m}} in central Asia. In southern Armenia, it breeds below {{cvt|1000|m}} if cliff availability permits.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bearded Vulture |year=2017 |website=Armenian Bird Census Council |url=http://www.abcc-am.org/bearded-vulture.html |access-date=11 February 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529164726/https://www.abcc-am.org/bearded-vulture.html |archive-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> It has even have been observed living at elevations of {{cvt|7500|m}} in the Himalayas and been observed flying at a height of {{cvt|24000|ft|m|order=flip}}.<ref name="Gavashelishvili5"/><ref name="Gavashelishvili6"/><ref name="Gavashelishvili8"/><ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref>{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=C. G. |author-link=Charles Granville Bruce |year=1923 |title=The assault on Mount Everest 1922 |publisher=Longmans, Green and Co |location=London |url=https://archive.org/details/assaultonmountev00bruc}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Subedi, T. R. |author2=Anadón, J.D. |author3=Baral, H.S. |author4=Viran, M.Z. |author5=Sah, S.A.M. |date=2020 |title=Breeding habitat and nest-site selection of Bearded Vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'' in the Annapurna Himalaya Range of Nepal |journal=Ibis |volume=162 |issue=1 |pages=153–161 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12698 |s2cid=91797199}}</ref>
+In [[Ethiopia]], it is common at [[garbage dumps]] tips on the outskirts of small villages and towns. Although it occasionally descends to {{cvt|300|-|600|m}}, the bearded vulture is rare below an elevation of {{cvt|1000|m}} and normally resides above {{cvt|2000|m}} in some parts of its range. It typically lives around or above the [[tree line]] which are often near the tops of the mountains, at up to {{cvt|2000|m}} in Europe, {{cvt|4500|m}} in Africa and {{cvt|5000|m}} in central Asia. In southern Armenia, it breeds below {{cvt|1000|m}} if cliff availability permits.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bearded Vulture |year=2017 |website=Armenian Bird Census Council |url=http://www.abcc-am.org/bearded-vulture.html |access-date=11 February 2017 |url-status=usurped |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190529164726/https://www.abcc-am.org/bearded-vulture.html |archive-date=29 May 2019}}</ref> It has even been observed living at elevations of {{cvt|7500|m}} in the Himalayas and been observed flying at a height of {{cvt|24000|ft|m|order=flip}}.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=C. G. |url=https://archive.org/details/assaultonmountev00bruc |title=The assault on Mount Everest 1922 |publisher=Longmans, Green and Co |year=1923 |location=London |author-link=Charles Granville Bruce}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author1=Subedi, T. R. |author2=Anadón, J.D. |author3=Baral, H.S. |author4=Viran, M.Z. |author5=Sah, S.A.M. |date=2020 |title=Breeding habitat and nest-site selection of Bearded Vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'' in the Annapurna Himalaya Range of Nepal |journal=Ibis |volume=162 |issue=1 |pages=153–161 |doi=10.1111/ibi.12698 |s2cid=91797199}}</ref>
 Though a rare visitor, bearded vultures occasionally travel to parts of the [[United Kingdom]], with the first confirmed sighting taking place in 2016 in Wales and the Westcountry.<ref>{{cite news |last=Morris |first=S. |date=2016 |title=Spectacular bearded vulture spotted for first time in UK |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/may/16/bearded-vulture-spotted-west-country-lammergeier-first-time-uk |access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref> A series of sightings took place in 2020, when an individual bird was sighted separately over the [[Channel Islands|Channel Island]] of [[Alderney]] after migrating north through France,<ref>{{cite web |title=Bearded Vulture: historic vagrancy and current European status |url=https://www.birdguides.com/articles/britain-ireland/bearded-vulture-historic-vagrancy-and-current-european-status/ |date=2020 |author=Viles, S. |website=BirdGuides.com}}</ref> then in the [[Peak District]],<ref>{{cite news |last=Birch |first=Simon |date=2020 |title=Birdwatchers flock to Peak District after rare sighting of bearded vulture in UK |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/17/bearded-vulture-makes-rare-uk-visit-in-peak-district-national-park |access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref> [[Derbyshire]], [[Cambridgeshire]], and [[Lincolnshire]]. The bird, nicknamed 'Vigo' by Tim Birch of the Derbyshire Wildlife Trust, is believed to have originated from the reintroduced population in the Alps.<ref>{{cite news |date=2020 |title=Bearded vulture: Crowds flock to see rare bird over Lincolnshire fens |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lincolnshire-54465297 |access-date=11 October 2020}}</ref>
@@ Line 64: / Line 62: @@
 [[File:Gipeto adulto.jpg|thumb|A bearded vulture flying over [[Gran Paradiso National Park]], [[Italy]]]]
 [[File:Gypaetus Barbatus.jpg|thumb|Bearded vulture on the rocks in [[Gran Paradiso National Park]]]]
-Like other [[vulture]]s, it is a [[scavenger]], feeding mostly on the remains of [[Carrion|dead animals]]. The bearded vulture diet comprises mammals (93%), birds (6%) and reptiles (1%), with medium-sized ungulates forming a large part of the diet.<ref name="Margalida et al. 2009"/> It usually disdains the actual meat and lives on a diet that is typically 85–90% bones. While the [[bone marrow]] contains fat and energy, they consume all of it.<ref>[https://www.birdwatchingdaily.com/beginners/birding-faq/why-bearded-vulture-strangest-diet/ Why the Bearded Vulture's diet is the strangest among all birds]</ref> This is the only living bird species that specializes in feeding on bones.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Meat and skin only makes up a small part of what the adults eat, but scraps of meat or skin makes up a larger amount of the chicks' diet.<ref>[https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gypaetus_barbatus/ ADW: Gypaetus barbatus - Animal Diversity Web]</ref> The bearded vulture can swallow whole or bite through brittle bones up to the size of a lamb's femur<ref name="PBS-Bhutan">{{cite web |title=Lammergeier Vulture |work=The Living Edens: Bhutan |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/edens/bhutan/a_lv.htm |access-date=30 May 2011}}</ref> and its powerful digestive system quickly dissolves even large pieces. The bearded vulture has learned to crack bones too large to be swallowed by carrying them in flight to a height of {{convert|50|-|150|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the ground and then dropping them onto rocks below, which smashes them into smaller pieces and exposes the nutritious marrow.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> They can fly with bones up to {{convert|10|cm|in|abbr=on}} in diameter and weighing over {{convert|4|kg|lb|abbr=on}}, or nearly equal to their own weight.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>
+The bearded vulture is a [[scavenger]], feeding mostly on the remains of [[Carrion|dead animals]]. Its diet comprises mammals (93%), birds (6%) and reptiles (1%), with medium-sized ungulates forming a large part of the diet.<ref name="Margalida et al. 2009"/> It usually disdains the actual meat and typically lives on 85–90% bones including [[bone marrow]].<ref>{{cite web |date=2018 |first=J. |last=Craves |title=Why the Bearded Vulture's diet is the strangest among all birds |url=https://www.birdwatchingdaily.com/beginners/birding-faq/why-bearded-vulture-strangest-diet/ |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330104602/https://www.birdwatchingdaily.com/beginners/birding-faq/why-bearded-vulture-strangest-diet/ |archive-date=2023-03-30}}</ref> This is the only living bird species that specializes in feeding on bones.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Meat and skin only makes up a small part of what the adults eat, but scraps of meat or skin makes up a larger amount of the chicks' diet.<ref>[https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Gypaetus_barbatus/ ADW: Gypaetus barbatus - Animal Diversity Web]</ref> The bearded vulture can swallow whole or bite through brittle bones up to the size of a lamb's femur<ref name="PBS-Bhutan">{{cite web |title=Lammergeier Vulture |work=The Living Edens: Bhutan |publisher=PBS |url=https://www.pbs.org/edens/bhutan/a_lv.htm |access-date=30 May 2011}}</ref> and its powerful digestive system quickly dissolves even large pieces. Their favored variants of bones to consume consist of fattier and elongated bones like tarsal bones and tibias. They contain more levels of oleic acid which is highly nutritional for them compared to bones that are tinier. Smaller bones will contain less accessible bone marrow therefore being of less value. The bearded vulture has learned to crack bones too large to be swallowed by carrying them in flight to a height of {{cvt|50|-|150|m}} above the ground and then dropping them onto rocks below, which smashes them into smaller pieces and exposes the nutritious marrow.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> They can fly with bones up to {{cvt|10|cm}} in diameter and weighing over {{cvt|4|kg}}, or nearly equal to their own weight.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>
 After dropping the large bones, the bearded vulture spirals or glides down to inspect them and may repeat the act if the bone is not sufficiently cracked.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> This learned skill requires extensive practice by immature birds and takes up to seven years to master.<ref name="BBC-BeardedVulture">{{cite web |work=Wildlife Finder |title=Lammergeier (video, facts and news) |publisher=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Bearded_Vulture |access-date=29 May 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171209133003/https://www.bbc.co.uk/nature/life/Bearded_Vulture |archive-date=2017-12-09}}</ref> Its old name of ''ossifrage'' ("bone breaker") relates to this habit. Less frequently, these birds have been observed trying to break bones (usually of a medium size) by hammering them with their bill directly into rocks while perched.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> During the breeding season they feed mainly on carrion. They prefer the limbs of sheep and other small mammals and they carry the food to the nest, unlike other vultures which feed their young by regurgitation.<ref name="Margalida et al. 2009">{{cite journal |last1=Margalida |first1=A. |last2=Bertra |first2=J. |last3=Heredia |first3=R. |title=Diet and food preferences of the endangered Bearded Vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'': a basis for their conservation |journal=Ibis |date=2009 |volume=151 |issue=2 |pages=235–243 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919x.2008.00904.x}}</ref>
-Bearded vultures sometimes attack live prey, with perhaps greater regularity than any other vulture.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Among these, [[tortoise]]s seem to be especially favored depending on their local abundance. Tortoises preyed on may be nearly as heavy as the preying vulture. To kill tortoises, bearded vultures fly with them to some height and drop them to crack open the bulky reptiles' hard shells. [[Golden eagle]]s have been observed to kill tortoises in the same way.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Other live animals, up to nearly their own size, have been observed to be predaceously seized and dropped in flight. Among these are [[rock hyrax]]es, [[hare]]s, [[marmot]]s and, in one case, a {{convert|62|cm|in|abbr=on}} long [[monitor lizard]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref name="PBS-Bhutan" /> Larger animals have been known to be attacked by bearded vultures, including [[ibex]], [[Capra (genus)|''Capra'' goats]], [[chamois]], and [[steenbok]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> These animals have been killed by being surprised by the large birds and battered with wings until they fall off precipitous rocky edges to their deaths; although in some cases these may be accidental killings when both the vulture and the mammal surprise each other.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Many large animals killed by bearded vultures are unsteady young, or have appeared sickly or obviously injured.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Humans have been anecdotally reported to have been killed in the same way. This is unconfirmed, however, and if it does happen, most biologists who have studied the birds generally agree it would be accidental on the part of the vulture.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Occasionally smaller ground-dwelling birds, such as [[partridge]]s and [[pigeon]]s, have been reported eaten, possibly either as fresh carrion (which is usually ignored by these birds) or killed with beating wings by the vulture.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> When foraging for bones or live prey while in flight, bearded vultures fly fairly low over the rocky ground, staying around {{convert|2|to|4|m|ft|abbr=on}} high.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Occasionally, breeding pairs may forage and hunt together.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> In the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], bearded vultures have adapted to living largely off human refuse.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>
+Bearded vultures sometimes attack live prey, with perhaps greater regularity than any other vulture.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Among these, [[tortoise]]s seem to be especially favored depending on their local abundance. Tortoises preyed on may be nearly as heavy as the preying vulture. To kill tortoises, bearded vultures fly with them to some height and drop them to crack open the bulky reptiles' hard shells. [[Golden eagle]]s have been observed to kill tortoises in the same way.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Other live animals, up to nearly their own size, have been observed to be predaceously seized and dropped in flight. Among these are [[rock hyrax]]es, [[hare]]s, [[marmot]]s and, in one case, a {{cvt|62|cm}} long [[monitor lizard]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld/><ref name="PBS-Bhutan" /> Larger animals have been known to be attacked by bearded vultures, including [[ibex]], [[Capra (genus)|''Capra'' goats]], [[chamois]], and [[steenbok]].<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> These animals have been killed by being surprised by the large birds and battered with wings until they fall off precipitous rocky edges to their deaths; although in some cases these may be accidental killings when both the vulture and the mammal surprise each other.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Many large animals killed by bearded vultures are unsteady young, or have appeared sickly or obviously injured.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Humans have been anecdotally reported to have been killed in the same way. This is unconfirmed, however, and if it does happen, most biologists who have studied the birds generally agree it would be accidental on the part of the vulture.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Occasionally smaller ground-dwelling birds, such as [[partridge]]s and [[pigeon]]s, have been reported eaten, possibly either as fresh carrion (which is usually ignored by these birds) or killed with beating wings by the vulture.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> When foraging for bones or live prey while in flight, bearded vultures fly fairly low over the rocky ground, staying around {{cvt|2|-|4|m}} high.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Occasionally, breeding pairs may forage and hunt together.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> In the [[Ethiopian Highlands]], bearded vultures have adapted to living largely off human refuse.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>
 ===Reproduction and life cycle===
 {{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=Gypaète barbu MHNT.jpg |caption1=''Gypaetus barbatus aureus'' egg |image2=Gypaetus barbatus hemachalanus MHNT.jpg|caption2=''G. b. hemachalanus'' egg |image3=NovitatesZoologicae18 532 Gypaetus barbatus nestling.png |caption3=Nestling |image4=Gypaetus-barbatus-bearded-vulture-0b.jpg|caption4=Juvenile}}
-The bearded vulture occupies an enormous territory year-round. It may forage over {{cvt|2|sqkm}} each day. The breeding period is variable, being December through September in [[Eurasia]], November to June in the [[Indian subcontinent]], October to May in [[Ethiopia]], throughout the year in eastern Africa, and May to January in southern Africa.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Although generally solitary, the bond between a breeding pair is often considerably close. Biparental monogamous care occurs in the bearded vulture.<ref name="Margalida et al. 2000">{{cite journal |last1=Margalida |first1=A. |last2=Bertran |first2=J. |title=Breeding behaviour of the Bearded Vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'': minimal sexual differences in parental activities |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227538280 |journal=Ibis |date=2008 |volume=142 |issue=2 |pages=225–234 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2000.tb04862.x}}</ref> In a few cases, [[polyandry]] has been recorded in the species.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> The territorial and breeding display between bearded vultures is often spectacular, involving the showing of talons, tumbling, and spiraling while in solo flight. The large birds also regularly lock feet with each other and fall some distance through the sky with each other.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> In Europe the breeding pairs of bearded vultures are estimated to be 120.<ref name=Donazar>{{cite journal |last1=Donazar |first1=J. A. |last2=Hiraldo |first2=F. |last3=Bustamante |first3=J. |title=Factors Influencing Nest Site Selection, Breeding Density and Breeding Success in the Bearded Vulture (''Gypaetus barbatus'') |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=1993 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=504–514 |doi=10.2307/2404190 |jstor=2404190 |bibcode=1993JApEc..30..504D |hdl=10261/47110 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The mean productivity of the bearded vulture is 0.43±0.28 fledgings per breeding pair per year and the breeding success averaged 0.56±0.30 fledgings per pair with clutches/year.<ref name="Margalida et al. 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Margalida |first1=A. |last2=Garcia |first2=D. |last3=Bertran |first3=J. |last4=Heredia |first4=R. |title=Breeding biology and success of the Bearded Vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'' in the eastern Pyrenees |journal=Ibis |date=2003 |volume=145 |issue=2 |pages=244–252 |doi=10.1046/j.1474-919X.2003.00148.x}}</ref>
+The bearded vulture occupies an enormous territory year-round. It may forage over {{cvt|2|sqkm}} each day. The breeding period is variable, being December through September in [[Eurasia]], November to June in the [[Indian subcontinent]], October to May in [[Ethiopia]], throughout the year in eastern Africa, and May to January in southern Africa.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Although generally solitary, the bond between a breeding pair is often considerably close. Biparental monogamous care occurs in the bearded vulture.<ref name="Margalida et al. 2000">{{cite journal |last1=Margalida |first1=A. |last2=Bertran |first2=J. |title=Breeding behaviour of the Bearded Vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'': minimal sexual differences in parental activities |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/227538280 |journal=Ibis |date=2008 |volume=142 |issue=2 |pages=225–234 |doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.2000.tb04862.x}}</ref> In a few cases, [[Polyandry in animals|polyandry]] has been recorded in the species.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> The territorial and breeding display between bearded vultures is often spectacular, involving the showing of talons, tumbling, and spiraling while in solo flight. The large birds also regularly lock feet with each other and fall some distance through the sky with each other.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> In Europe, the breeding pairs of bearded vultures are estimated to be 120.<ref name=Donazar>{{cite journal |last1=Donazar |first1=J. A. |last2=Hiraldo |first2=F. |last3=Bustamante |first3=J. |title=Factors Influencing Nest Site Selection, Breeding Density and Breeding Success in the Bearded Vulture (''Gypaetus barbatus'') |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |date=1993 |volume=30 |issue=3 |pages=504–514 |doi=10.2307/2404190 |jstor=2404190 |bibcode=1993JApEc..30..504D |hdl=10261/47110 |hdl-access=free}}</ref> The mean productivity of the bearded vulture is 0.43±0.28 fledgings per breeding pair per year and the breeding success averaged 0.56±0.30 fledgings per pair with clutches/year.<ref name="Margalida et al. 2003">{{cite journal |last1=Margalida |first1=A. |last2=Garcia |first2=D. |last3=Bertran |first3=J. |last4=Heredia |first4=R. |title=Breeding biology and success of the Bearded Vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'' in the eastern Pyrenees |journal=Ibis |date=2003 |volume=145 |issue=2 |pages=244–252 |doi=10.1046/j.1474-919X.2003.00148.x}}</ref>
 The nest is a massive pile of sticks, that goes from around {{cvt|1|m}} across and {{cvt|69|cm}} deep when first constructed up to {{cvt|2.5|m}} across and {{cvt|1|m}} deep, with a covering of various animal matter from food, after repeated uses. The female usually lays a clutch of 1 to 2 eggs, though 3 have been recorded on rare occasions,<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> which are incubated for 53 to 60 days. After hatching, the young spend 100 to 130 days in the nest before [[fledge|fledging]]. The young may be dependent on the parents for up to 2 years, forcing the parents to nest in alternate years on a regular basis.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Typically, the bearded vulture nests in caves and on ledges and rock outcrops or caves on steep rock walls, so are very difficult for nest-predating mammals to access.<ref name="PBS-Bhutan" /> Wild bearded vultures have a mean lifespan of 21.4 years,<ref name="CJBrown1997">{{cite journal |last1=Brown |first1=C.J. |title=Population dynamics of the bearded vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'' in southern Africa |journal=African Journal of Ecology |date=1997 |volume=35 |issue=1 |pages=53–63 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2028.1997.048-89048.x|bibcode=1997AfJEc..35...53B }}</ref> but have lived for up to at least 45 years in captivity.<ref name="RJAntor2007">{{cite journal |last1=Antor |first1=R.J. |last2=Margalida |first2=A. |last3=Frey |first3=H. |last4=Heredia |first4=R. |last5=Lorente |first5=L. |last6=Sesé |first6=J.A. |title=First Breeding age in captive and wild Bearded Vultures |journal=Acta Ornithologica |date=2007 |volume=42 |issue=1 |pages=114–118 |doi=10.3161/068.042.0106 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
@@ Line 78: / Line 76: @@
 ==Threats==
 [[File:Lammergeier with boy, Kabul, 1973.JPG|thumb|upright|Boy with live bearded vulture, [[Kabul]], Afghanistan]]
-The bearded vulture is one of the most endangered European bird species as over the last century its abundance and breeding range have drastically declined.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bretagnolle |first1=V. |last2=Inchausti |first2=P. |last3=Seguin |first3=J.-F. |last4=Thibault |first4=J.-C. |title=Evaluation of the extinction risk and of conservation alternatives for a very small insular population: the bearded vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'' in Corsica |journal=Biological Conservation |date=2004 |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=19–30 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.01.023}}</ref> It naturally occurs at low densities, with anywhere from a dozen to 500 pairs now being found in each mountain range in Eurasia where the species breeds. The species is most common in [[Ethiopia]], where an estimated 1,400 to 2,200 are believed to breed.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Relatively large, healthy numbers seem to occur in some parts of the Himalayas as well. It was largely wiped out in Europe and, by the beginning of the 20th century, the only substantial population was in the Spanish and French Pyrenees. Since then, it has been successfully reintroduced to the [[Swiss Alps|Swiss]] and [[Italian Alps|Italian]] Alps, from where they have spread into France.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> They have also declined somewhat in parts of Asia and Africa, though less severely than in Europe.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>
+The bearded vulture is one of the most endangered European bird species as over the last century its abundance and breeding range have drastically declined.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bretagnolle |first1=V. |last2=Inchausti |first2=P. |last3=Seguin |first3=J.-F. |last4=Thibault |first4=J.-C. |title=Evaluation of the extinction risk and of conservation alternatives for a very small insular population: the bearded vulture ''Gypaetus barbatus'' in Corsica |journal=Biological Conservation |date=2004 |volume=120 |issue=1 |pages=19–30 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2004.01.023|bibcode=2004BCons.120...19B }}</ref> It naturally occurs at low densities, with anywhere from a dozen to 500 pairs now being found in each mountain range in Eurasia where the species breeds. The species is most common in [[Ethiopia]], where an estimated 1,400 to 2,200 are believed to breed.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> Relatively large, healthy numbers seem to occur in some parts of the Himalayas as well. It was largely wiped out in Europe and, by the beginning of the 20th century, the only substantial population was in the Spanish and French Pyrenees. Since then, it has been successfully reintroduced to the [[Swiss Alps|Swiss]] and [[Italian Alps|Italian]] Alps, from where they have spread into France.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/> They have also declined somewhat in parts of Asia and Africa, though less severely than in Europe.<ref name=RaptorsWorld/>
-Many raptor species were shielded from anthropogenic influences in previously underdeveloped areas therefore they are greatly impacted as the human population rises and infrastructure increases in underdeveloped areas. The increase in human population and infrastructure results in the declines of the bearded vulture populations today. The increase of infrastructure includes the building of houses, roads, and power lines. A major issue with infrastructure and bird species populations is collision with power lines.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2014 |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=e114920 |title=Differential Range Use between Age Classes of Southern African Bearded Vultures ''Gypaetus barbatus'' |author1=Kruger, S. |author2=Reid, T. |author3=Amar, A. |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0114920 |pmid=25551614 |pmc=4281122 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9k4920K |doi-access=free}}</ref> The declines of the bearded vulture populations have been documented throughout their range resulting from a decrease in habitat space, fatal collisions with energy infrastructure, reduced food availability, poisons left out for carnivores and direct persecution in the form of Trophy Hunting.<ref name="howstuffworks">{{cite web |title=Lammergeier |date=2008 |publisher=Discovery Communications |work=howstuffworks.com |url=http://animals.howstuffworks.com/birds/lammergeier-info.htm |access-date=29 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712230041/http://animals.howstuffworks.com/birds/lammergeier-info.htm |archive-date=12 July 2011}}</ref>
+Many raptor species were shielded from anthropogenic influences in previously underdeveloped areas therefore they are greatly impacted as the human population rises and infrastructure increases in underdeveloped areas. The increase in human population and infrastructure results in the declines of the bearded vulture populations today. The increase of infrastructure includes the building of houses, roads, and power lines. A major issue with infrastructure and bird species populations is collision with power lines.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite journal |journal=PLOS ONE |year=2014 |volume=9 |issue=12 |pages=e114920 |title=Differential Range Use between Age Classes of Southern African Bearded Vultures ''Gypaetus barbatus'' |author1=Kruger, S. |author2=Reid, T. |author3=Amar, A. |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0114920 |pmid=25551614 |pmc=4281122 |bibcode=2014PLoSO...9k4920K |doi-access=free}}</ref> The declines of the bearded vulture populations have been documented throughout their range resulting from a decrease in habitat space, fatal collisions with energy infrastructure, reduced food availability, poisons left out for carnivores and direct persecution in the form of trophy hunting.<ref name="howstuffworks">{{cite web |title=Lammergeier |date=2008 |publisher=Discovery Communications |work=howstuffworks.com |url=http://animals.howstuffworks.com/birds/lammergeier-info.htm |access-date=29 May 2011 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110712230041/http://animals.howstuffworks.com/birds/lammergeier-info.htm |archive-date=12 July 2011}}</ref>
-This species is currently listed as near threatened by the IUCN Red List last accessed on 1 October 2016, the population continues to decline as the distribution ranges of this species continues to decline due to human development.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}}
+This species is currently listed as near threatened by the IUCN Red List last accessed on 1 October 2016, and the population continues to decline.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}}
 ==Conservation==
 Mitigation plans have been established to reduce the population declines in bearded vulture populations. One of these plans includes the South African Biodiversity Management Plan that has been ratified by the government to stop the population decline in the short term. Actions that have been implemented include the mitigation of existing and proposed energy structures to prevent collision risks, the improved management of supplementary feeding sites as well to reduce the populations from being exposed to human persecution and poisoning accidents and outreach programmes that are aimed at reducing poisoning incidents.<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
-The Foundation for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture ({{lang-es|Fundación para la Conservación del Quebrantahuesos}}), established in Spain in 1995, was created in response to the national population dropping to 30 specimens by the end of the 20th century. Focused on conserving the species in the [[Pyrenees]], it also returned the species to other already extinct areas such as the [[Picos de Europa]] in the north of the country or the [[Sierra de Cazorla]], in the south. After 25 years of work, the Foundation reported that they had managed to recover the species, with more than 1,000 specimens throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web |date=2021-12-01 |title=Cómo el quebrantahuesos ha pasado de 30 ejemplares a más de 1.000 en 25 años en España |url=https://www.niusdiario.es/sociedad/medio-ambiente/fundacion-conservacion-quebrantahuesos-premio-bbva_18_3242673070.html |access-date=2021-12-04 |website=Nius Diario |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Madrid |first=Isambard Wilkinson |title=Bearded vultures soar to a record breeding season |newspaper=[[The Times]] |language=en |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/bearded-vultures-soar-to-a-record-breeding-season-78j0mn0qq |access-date=2021-12-04 |issn=0140-0460}}</ref>
+The Foundation for the Conservation of the Bearded Vulture ({{langx|es|Fundación para la Conservación del Quebrantahuesos}}), established in Spain in 1995, was created in response to the national population dropping to 30 specimens by the end of the 20th century. Focused on conserving the species in the [[Pyrenees]], it also returned the species to other already extinct areas such as the [[Picos de Europa]] in the north of the country or the [[Sierra de Cazorla]], in the south. After 25 years of work, the Foundation reported that they had managed to recover the species, with more than 1,000 specimens throughout the country.<ref>{{cite web |date=2021-12-01 |title=Cómo el quebrantahuesos ha pasado de 30 ejemplares a más de 1.000 en 25 años en España |url=https://www.niusdiario.es/sociedad/medio-ambiente/fundacion-conservacion-quebrantahuesos-premio-bbva_18_3242673070.html |access-date=2021-12-04 |website=Nius Diario |language=es-ES}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Madrid |first=Isambard Wilkinson |title=Bearded vultures soar to a record breeding season |newspaper=[[The Times]] |language=en |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/bearded-vultures-soar-to-a-record-breeding-season-78j0mn0qq |access-date=2021-12-04 |issn=0140-0460}}</ref>
 ===Reintroduction in the Alps===
 Efforts to reintroduce the bearded vulture began in the 1970s in the [[French Alps]]. Zoologists Paul Geroudet and Gilbert Amigues attempted to release vultures that had been captured in Afghanistan, but this approach proved unsuccessful: it was too difficult to capture the vultures in the first place, and too many died in transport on their way to France. A second attempt was made in 1987, using a technique called "hacking", in which young individuals (from 90 to 100 days) from zoological parks would be taken from the nest and placed in a protected area in the Alps. As they were still unable to fly at that age, the chicks were hand-fed by humans until the birds learned to fly and were able to reach food without human assistance. This method has proven more successful, with over 200 birds released in the Alps from 1987 to 2015, and a bearded vulture population has reestablished itself in the Alps.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20180612143959/http://gypaetebarbu.ch/project/reintroduction RÉINTRODUCTION. Le retour des gypaètes], ''Pro Gypaète''. 31 May 2018</ref>
-==Etymology==
-The name ''lammergeier'' originates from the [[German language|German]] word ''{{lang|de|Lämmergeier}}'', which means "lamb-vulture". The name stems from the belief that it attacked lambs.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Andrew |first=D. G. |year=2008 |title=Lammergeiers and lambs |journal=British Birds |volume=101 |issue=4 |page=215 |url=https://archive.org/details/britishbirds1011unse/page/214/mode/2up}}</ref> Its old name of ''ossifrage'' ("bone breaker") originating from Middle French and Latin ''ossifraga'' relates to its actual feeding mode.{{cn|date=October 2023}}
 ==In culture==
 <!-- Commented out: [[File:Iranair logo.jpg|thumb|Homa bird in the logo of [[Iran Air]]]] -->
-The bearded vulture is considered a threatened species in [[Iran]]. Iranian mythology considers the rare bearded vulture ([[Persian language|Persian]]: هما, 'Homa') the symbol of luck and happiness. It was believed that if the shadow of a ''[[Huma bird|Homa]]'' fell on one, he would rise to sovereignty<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pollard |first1=J.R.T. |title=The Lammergeyer Comparative Descriptions in Aristotle and Pliny |journal=Greece and Rome |date=2009 |volume=16 |issue=46 |pages=23–28 |doi=10.1017/s0017383500009311|s2cid=162827880 }}</ref> and anyone shooting the bird would die in forty days. The habit of eating bones and apparently not killing living animals was noted by [[Saadi Shirazi|Sa'di]] in [[Gulistan (book)|''Gulistan'']], written in 1258, and Emperor Jahangir had a bird's [[crop (anatomy)|crop]] examined in 1625 to find that it was filled with bones.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Note on the Huma or Lammergeyer |url=https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753003193114#page/532/mode/1up |pages=532–533 |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |year=1906 |volume=2 |issue=10 |author=Phillott, D.C. |author-link=Douglas Craven Phillott}}</ref>
+The bearded vulture is considered a threatened species in [[Iran]]. Iranian mythology considers the rare bearded vulture ({{langx|fa|هما}}; {{lit|Homa}}) the symbol of luck and happiness. It was believed that if the shadow of a ''[[Huma bird|Homa]]'' fell on one, he would rise to sovereignty<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pollard |first1=J.R.T. |title=The Lammergeyer Comparative Descriptions in Aristotle and Pliny |journal=Greece and Rome |date=2009 |volume=16 |issue=46 |pages=23–28 |doi=10.1017/s0017383500009311|s2cid=162827880 }}</ref> and anyone shooting the bird would die in forty days. The habit of eating bones and apparently not killing living animals was noted by [[Saadi Shirazi|Sa'di]] in [[Gulistan (book)|''Gulistan'']], written in 1258, and Emperor Jahangir had a bird's [[crop (anatomy)|crop]] examined in 1625 to find that it was filled with bones.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Note on the Huma or Lammergeyer |url=https://archive.org/stream/mobot31753003193114#page/532/mode/1up |pages=532–533 |journal=Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal |year=1906 |volume=2 |issue=10 |author=Phillott, D.C. |author-link=Douglas Craven Phillott}}</ref>
 The ancient Greeks used [[ornithomancy|ornithomancer]]s to guide their political decisions: bearded vultures, or ossifrage, were one of the few species of birds that could yield valid signs to these soothsayers.
@@ Line 108: / Line 103: @@
 ==References==
+{{Reflist}}<ref>{{Cite book |last=Bildstein |first=Keith L. |title=Vultures of the World: Essential Ecology and Conservation |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2022 |isbn=9781501765025 |pages=58–59 |language=English}}</ref>
-{{Reflist}}
 ==External links==
@@ Line 123: / Line 118: @@
 {{Vultures}}
+{{Accipitrimorphae|A.|state=collapsed}}
 {{Taxonbar |from=Q126167}}
 {{Authority control}}