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==Archaeology==
==Archaeology==
Tell Uqair is a small mound just north of, and in sight of, Tell Ibrahim, the large mound marking the site of ancient [[Kutha]]. It lies about halfway between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The topography consists of two contiguous mounds separated by what is apparently the bed of an ancient canal. At maximum the hills are 6 meters above the terrain line (aside from a small 10 meter prominence on the west end of Mound A). with many levels having being eroded from the tops. The site has a total area of about 6 hectares. One mound contains a Protoliterate temple and 5 meter deep D-shaped platform (topped by a smaller 1.6 deep rectangular platform). and the other a Early Dynastic III cemetery. Two stairways, on opposite sides, ascended to the lower platform and another, halfway between, ascended to the upper platform. The temple mound (Mound B) has seven occupation levels. Buildings from the earlier Ubaid period levels are of [[Rammed earth|pisé]] and the later Uruk period of rectangular mudbricks.<ref>Lloyd, Seton, "Ur—Al ‘Ubaid,‘Uqair and Eridu: An Interpretation of Some Evidence from The Flood-Pit", Iraq 22.1-2, pp. 23-31, 1960</ref>
Tell Uqair is a small mound just north of, and in sight of, Tell Ibrahim, the large mound marking the site of ancient [[Kutha]]. It lies about halfway between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The topography consists of two contiguous mounds, north (Mound B) and south (Mound A), separated by what is apparently the bed of an ancient canal. At maximum the hills are 6 meters above the terrain line (aside from a small 10 meter prominence on the west end of Mound A), with many levels having being eroded from the tops. The site has a total area of about 6 hectares. One mound contains a Protoliterate temple and 5 meter deep D-shaped platform (topped by a smaller 1.6 deep rectangular platform). and the other an Early Dynastic III cemetery. Two stairways, on opposite sides, ascended to the lower platform and another, halfway between, ascended to the upper platform. The temple mound (Mound A) has seven occupation levels. Buildings from the earlier Ubaid period levels are of [[Rammed earth|pisé]] and the later Uruk period of rectangular mudbricks. After the Ubaid period only the temple and the southern half of Mound A was occupied.<ref>Lloyd, Seton, "Ur—Al ‘Ubaid,‘Uqair and Eridu: An Interpretation of Some Evidence from The Flood-Pit", Iraq 22.1-2, pp. 23-31, 1960</ref>


[[File:Glockentopf.jpg|thumb|Beveled Rim Bowl]]
[[File:Glockentopf.jpg|thumb|Beveled Rim Bowl]]
A number of [[Beveled rim bowl|beveled rim bowls]], characteristic of the Uruk period, were found in the temple precincts.<ref>Beale, Thomas Wight, "Bevelled Rim Bowls and Their Implications for Change and Economic Organization in the Later Fourth Millennium B. C.", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 37, no. 4, 1978, pp. 289–313, 1978</ref> The site of Tell Uqair was excavated, consisting of several soundings, during World War II, in 1941 and 1942, by an Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities team led by [[Seton Lloyd]], with [[Taha Baqir]] and Fuad Safar.<ref>Seton Lloyd and F. Safar, "Tell Uqair: Excavations by the Iraq Government Directorate General of Antiquities in 1940 and 1941", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, v. 2, no. 2, April, pp 131-58, 1943</ref> The buildings and artifacts discovered were primarily from the [[Ubaid period]], the [[Uruk period]], and the [[Jemdet Nasr period]] and included four [[Proto-Cuneiform]] tablets. An Early Dynastic, with a few later inclusions, cemetery was also excavated. The graves contained a variety of grave goods, mostly pottery. In one grave three Gutium seals were found and in another an Akkadian period seal.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/download/104996806/Moon_Upright_Handled_Jars.pdf]J. Moon, "The Distribution of Upright-handled Jars and Stemmed Dishes in the ED. Period", Iraq 44, pp. 39–69, 1982</ref> One grave contained a pair of copper sandals.<ref>Moorey, P. R. S., "The Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy and Related Technologies in Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C", Iraq, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 13–38, 1982</ref> Five Neolithic clay tokens were also found.<ref>Overmann, Karenleigh A., "The Neolithic Clay Tokens", in The Material Origin of Numbers: Insights from the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Piscataway, NJ, USA: Gorgias Press, pp. 157–178, 2019</ref> A sounding was done on Mound B, adjacent to the 1940 excavations pit, by a team from the [[Heidelberg University]] directed by Dr. M. Müller-Karpe in October 1978. Work focused on Early Dynastic I/II houses which were cut by ED III graves. The sounding found occupation down to the water table at 3.5 meters below the surface level of the tell.<ref>"Excavations in Iraq, 1977-78", Iraq, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 141–81, 1979</ref>
A number of [[Beveled rim bowl|beveled rim bowls]], characteristic of the Uruk period, were found in the temple precincts.<ref>Beale, Thomas Wight, "Bevelled Rim Bowls and Their Implications for Change and Economic Organization in the Later Fourth Millennium B. C.", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 37, no. 4, 1978, pp. 289–313, 1978</ref> The site of Tell Uqair was excavated, consisting of several soundings, during World War II, in 1941 and 1942, by an Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities team led by [[Seton Lloyd]], with [[Taha Baqir]] and Fuad Safar. Work proceeded for one month in 1940 and two months in 1941.<ref>Seton Lloyd and F. Safar, "Tell Uqair: Excavations by the Iraq Government Directorate General of Antiquities in 1940 and 1941", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, v. 2, no. 2, April, pp 131-58, 1943</ref> The buildings and artifacts discovered were primarily from the [[Ubaid period]], the [[Uruk period]], and the [[Jemdet Nasr period]] and included four [[Proto-Cuneiform]] tablets. An Early Dynastic, with a few later inclusions, cemetery was also excavated. The graves contained a variety of grave goods, mostly pottery. In one grave three Gutium seals were found and in another an Akkadian period seal.<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/download/104996806/Moon_Upright_Handled_Jars.pdf]J. Moon, "The Distribution of Upright-handled Jars and Stemmed Dishes in the ED. Period", Iraq 44, pp. 39–69, 1982</ref> One grave contained a pair of copper sandals.<ref>Moorey, P. R. S., "The Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy and Related Technologies in Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C", Iraq, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 13–38, 1982</ref> Five Neolithic clay tokens were also found.<ref>Overmann, Karenleigh A., "The Neolithic Clay Tokens", in The Material Origin of Numbers: Insights from the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Piscataway, NJ, USA: Gorgias Press, pp. 157–178, 2019</ref> A sounding was done on Mound B, adjacent to the 1940 excavations pit, by a team from the [[Heidelberg University]] directed by Dr. M. Müller-Karpe in October 1978. Work focused on Early Dynastic I/II houses which were cut by ED III graves. The sounding found occupation down to the water table at 3.5 meters below the surface level of the tell.<ref>"Excavations in Iraq, 1977-78", Iraq, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 141–81, 1979</ref>


While only four [[Proto-cuneiform]] tablets were found at Tell Uqair, another 27 from there have appeared on the antiquities market and been published. Some deal with loans of barley.<ref>Monaco, Salvatore F., "Loan and Interest in the Archaic Texts" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 102, no. 2, pp. 165-178, 2013</ref><ref>Robert K. Englund and Roger J. Matthews, "proto-cuneiform Texts from Diverse Collections", Materialien zu den frühen Schriftzeugnissen des Vorderen Orients Bd. 4. Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1996 {{ISBN|978-3786118756}}</ref> A city seal on one of the tablets matched a seal on a tablet found at [[Jemdat Nasr]]. It has been proposed that this site was part of a group providing ritual products to Inana at Uruk.<ref>Steinkeller, Piotr, "Archaic City Seals and the Question of Early Babylonian Unity", Riches Hidden in Secret Places: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Memory of Thorkild Jacobsen, edited by Tzvi Abusch, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 249-258, 2002</ref>
While only four [[Proto-cuneiform]] tablets were found at Tell Uqair, another 27 from there have appeared on the antiquities market and been published. Some deal with loans of barley.<ref>Monaco, Salvatore F., "Loan and Interest in the Archaic Texts" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 102, no. 2, pp. 165-178, 2013</ref><ref>Robert K. Englund and Roger J. Matthews, "proto-cuneiform Texts from Diverse Collections", Materialien zu den frühen Schriftzeugnissen des Vorderen Orients Bd. 4. Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1996 {{ISBN|978-3786118756}}</ref> A city seal on one of the tablets matched a seal on a tablet found at [[Jemdat Nasr]]. It has been proposed that this site was part of a group providing ritual products to Inana at Uruk.<ref>Steinkeller, Piotr, "Archaic City Seals and the Question of Early Babylonian Unity", Riches Hidden in Secret Places: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Memory of Thorkild Jacobsen, edited by Tzvi Abusch, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 249-258, 2002</ref>
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The site of Tell Uqair first had significant occupation during the [[Ubaid period]], and grew to its greatest extent during the [[Jemdet Nasr period|Jemdet Nasr]] and [[Uruk period|Uruk]] periods. Some Early Dynastic graves and a scattering of [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] and [[Babylonia]]n artifacts indicate the location continued in limited use up through the time of [[Nebuchadnezzar]].
The site of Tell Uqair first had significant occupation during the [[Ubaid period]], and grew to its greatest extent during the [[Jemdet Nasr period|Jemdet Nasr]] and [[Uruk period|Uruk]] periods. Some Early Dynastic graves and a scattering of [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian]] and [[Babylonia]]n artifacts indicate the location continued in limited use up through the time of [[Nebuchadnezzar]].


[[File:Female clay figurine - Ubaid period - Ur - ME 122872.jpg|thumb|Female figurine - Ubaid period - Ur]]
The most prominent discovery at Tell Uquair was the "Painted Temple", a large complex similar in design to the "White Temple" found at [[Uruk]], with alternating buttresses and recesses.<ref>Abid, Ameer Najim, "The architecture of white temples in the cities of ancient central and southern Mesopotamia (Uruk-Umm Al-Aqarib-Tal Al-Uqair) A comparative study", ISIN Journal 5, pp. 53-79, 2023</ref> Like that temple it had stepped niches with half columns.<ref>Ławecka, Dorota, "Bent or Straight Axis? Temple Plans in Early Dynastic Southern Babylonia", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 206-228, 2014</ref> Some of the original frescoes were still visible at the time of the excavation and were copied. Several frescoes were recovered intact and sent to the Baghdad Museum. The temple is believed to date to the Uruk or early Jemdet Nasr period. A small adjacent Jemdet Nasr temple was of somewhat later construction and contained large amounts of pottery from that period.<ref>Dermech, S., "The Tell'Uqair temple (4th mill. BC): colours and iconography", in BAF-Online: Proceedings of the Berner Altorientalisches Forum (Vol. 1), 2016</ref><ref>Lloyd, S, "Recent Discoveries of the Iraq Directorate of Antiquities", Palestine Exploration Quarterly 75(2), pp. 105-109, 1943</ref>
The most prominent discovery at Tell Uquair was the "Painted Temple", a large complex similar in design to the "White Temple" found at [[Uruk]], with alternating buttresses and recesses. The temple was laid directly on the bitumen coated platform and was eventually fully cleaned and filled with mudbricks before a later temple.<ref>Abid, Ameer Najim, "The architecture of white temples in the cities of ancient central and southern Mesopotamia (Uruk-Umm Al-Aqarib-Tal Al-Uqair) A comparative study", ISIN Journal 5, pp. 53-79, 2023</ref> Like that temple it had stepped niches with half columns.<ref>Ławecka, Dorota, "Bent or Straight Axis? Temple Plans in Early Dynastic Southern Babylonia", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 206-228, 2014</ref> Some of the original frescoes were still visible at the time of the excavation and were copied. Several frescoes were recovered intact and sent to the Baghdad Museum. The temple is believed to date to the Uruk or early Jemdet Nasr period. A small adjacent Jemdet Nasr temple was of somewhat later construction and contained large amounts of pottery from that period.<ref>Dermech, S., "The Tell'Uqair temple (4th mill. BC): colours and iconography", in BAF-Online: Proceedings of the Berner Altorientalisches Forum (Vol. 1), 2016</ref><ref>Lloyd, S, "Recent Discoveries of the Iraq Directorate of Antiquities", Palestine Exploration Quarterly 75(2), pp. 105-109, 1943</ref>


It has been suggested, based on a toponym (ḪA.ÚR.BAR), that the [[Blau Monuments]] originated at Tell Uqair.<ref>Balke, Thomas E., "The Interplay of Material, Text, and Iconography in Some of the Oldest “Legal” Documents", Materiality of Writing in Early Mesopotamia, edited by Thomas E. Balke and Christina Tsouparopoulou, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016, pp. 73-94, 2016</ref>
It has been suggested, based on a toponym (ḪA.ÚR.BAR), that the [[Blau Monuments]] originated at Tell Uqair.<ref>Balke, Thomas E., "The Interplay of Material, Text, and Iconography in Some of the Oldest “Legal” Documents", Materiality of Writing in Early Mesopotamia, edited by Thomas E. Balke and Christina Tsouparopoulou, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016, pp. 73-94, 2016</ref>
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It is known that during the 3rd millennium BC Urum was a cult site for the god [[Sin (mythology)|Nanna]].<ref>Yuhong, Wu, and Stephanie Dalley, "The Origins of the Manana Dynasty at Kish, and the Assyrian King List", Iraq, vol. 52, pp. 159–65, 1990</ref> It is also known that Urum was between the cities of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] and [[Sippar]] (more specifically between Sippar and [[Kutha]]), which fits with Tell Uqair, and that under the Ur III empire one of the ensi<sub>2</sub> was one Ur-Sin/Ur-Suena (attested in years 43 and 44 of [[Shulgi]]).<ref>Sharlach, Tonia. "Princely Employments in the Reign of Shulgi", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1-68, 2022</ref><ref>Sallaberger, W., "Ur III-Zeit", in Mesopotamien: Akkade-Zeit und Ur III-Zeit, OBO 160/3, edited by W. Sallaberger, and A. Westenholz, Freiburg: Universitätsverlag, pp. 121–390, 1999</ref> At that time Urum and TiWA/Tiwe, which was known as one of the polities that joined the great rebellion against [[Naram-Sin of Akkad]] (c. 2254–2218 BC), made up adjacent Ur III provinces.<ref>Steinkeller, Piotr. "Two Sargonic Seals from Urusagrig and the Question of Urusagrig’s Location" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 112, no. 1, 2022, pp. 1-10</ref> In a text of Naram-Sin, on the pivotal battle in crushing the revolt, he states "In between the cities of TiWA and Urum, in the field of the god Sin, he drew up (battle lines) and awaited battle.".<ref name="Frayne1993" >[https://archive.org/details/sargonic-and-gutian-periods-2334-2113-bc]Douglas R. Frayne, "Akkad", The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334–2113), University of Toronto Press, pp. 5-218, 1993 {{ISBN|0-8020-0593-4}}</ref> It is known that Urum was the third most province from the north, after Sippar and then Tiwe, of the 19 provinces of Ur III.<ref>Sharlach, Tonia, "Provincial Taxation and the Ur III State" CM 26. Leiden: Brill, 2004</ref>
It is known that during the 3rd millennium BC Urum was a cult site for the god [[Sin (mythology)|Nanna]].<ref>Yuhong, Wu, and Stephanie Dalley, "The Origins of the Manana Dynasty at Kish, and the Assyrian King List", Iraq, vol. 52, pp. 159–65, 1990</ref> It is also known that Urum was between the cities of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] and [[Sippar]] (more specifically between Sippar and [[Kutha]]), which fits with Tell Uqair, and that under the Ur III empire one of the ensi<sub>2</sub> was one Ur-Sin/Ur-Suena (attested in years 43 and 44 of [[Shulgi]]).<ref>Sharlach, Tonia. "Princely Employments in the Reign of Shulgi", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1-68, 2022</ref><ref>Sallaberger, W., "Ur III-Zeit", in Mesopotamien: Akkade-Zeit und Ur III-Zeit, OBO 160/3, edited by W. Sallaberger, and A. Westenholz, Freiburg: Universitätsverlag, pp. 121–390, 1999</ref> At that time Urum and TiWA/Tiwe, which was known as one of the polities that joined the great rebellion against [[Naram-Sin of Akkad]] (c. 2254–2218 BC), made up adjacent Ur III provinces.<ref>Steinkeller, Piotr. "Two Sargonic Seals from Urusagrig and the Question of Urusagrig’s Location" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 112, no. 1, 2022, pp. 1-10</ref> In a text of Naram-Sin, on the pivotal battle in crushing the revolt, he states "In between the cities of TiWA and Urum, in the field of the god Sin, he drew up (battle lines) and awaited battle.".<ref name="Frayne1993" >[https://archive.org/details/sargonic-and-gutian-periods-2334-2113-bc]Douglas R. Frayne, "Akkad", The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334–2113), University of Toronto Press, pp. 5-218, 1993 {{ISBN|0-8020-0593-4}}</ref> It is known that Urum was the third most province from the north, after Sippar and then Tiwe, of the 19 provinces of Ur III.<ref>Sharlach, Tonia, "Provincial Taxation and the Ur III State" CM 26. Leiden: Brill, 2004</ref>


[[File:Clay tablet, late Uruk period, 3300-3100 BCE. Proto-cuneiform signs, food issue list " rations" written by combining a human head and a bowl. Purchased via Christie's in 1989, with contribution from the British Museum Friends.jpg|thumb|Proto-cuneiform tablet, late Uruk period]]
The goddess [[Ningal]] had a sanctuary at Urum.<ref>Frayne, Douglas R. and Stuckey, Johanna H., "N", A Handbook of Gods and Goddesses of the Ancient Near East: Three Thousand Deities of Anatolia, Syria, Israel, Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, and Elam, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 219-287, 2021</ref> According to the Sumerian Temple Hymns, the temple of Nanna at Urum was named E-Ablua.<ref>Helle, Sophus, "The Temple Hymns", Enheduana: The Complete Poems of the World's First Author, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 53-94, 2023</ref>
The goddess [[Ningal]] had a sanctuary at Urum.<ref>Frayne, Douglas R. and Stuckey, Johanna H., "N", A Handbook of Gods and Goddesses of the Ancient Near East: Three Thousand Deities of Anatolia, Syria, Israel, Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, and Elam, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 219-287, 2021</ref> According to the Sumerian Temple Hymns, the temple of Nanna at Urum was named E-Ablua.<ref>Helle, Sophus, "The Temple Hymns", Enheduana: The Complete Poems of the World's First Author, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 53-94, 2023</ref>


Tulid-Šamši (Šamaš-gave-(me-)birth) was an en-priestess of [[Sin (mythology)|Nanna]] at Urum during the reign of Ur III ruler [[Shu-Sin]] (c. 2037–2028 BC), known from seals of two servants.<ref name="Frayne1997" >Frayne, Douglas, "Šulgi", Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 91-234, 1997</ref><ref>Michalowski, Piotr, "Of Bears and Men: Thoughts on the End of Šulgi’s Reign and on the Ensuing Succession", Literature as Politics, Politics as Literature: Essays on the Ancient Near East in Honor of Peter Machinist, edited by David S. Vanderhooft and Abraham Winitzer, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 285-320, 2013</ref> She is also listed as en <sup>d</sup>EN.ZU.<ref>Stol, Marten, "Priestesses", Women in the Ancient Near East, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 555-583, 2016</ref> A Niridagal was general in charge of the troops of Urum and Tiwa (A.HA) in the reign of [[Amar-Sin]] (c. 2046–2037BC).<ref>Steinkeller, Piotr, "Corvée Labor in Ur III Times", From the 21st Century B.C. to the 21st Century A.D.: Proceedings of the International Conference on Neo-Sumerian Studies Held in Madrid, 22–24 July 2010, edited by Steven J. Garfinkle and Manuel Molina, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 347-424, 2013</ref> A text from the reign of [[Ibbi-Sin]] (c. 2028–2004 BC) mentions "when the en of Nanna of Urum was installed" (u4 en-dnanna ÚRxÚ.KI-ka ba-hun-gá).<ref>Frayne, Douglas, "Ibbi-Sin", Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 361-392, 1997</ref>
Tulid-Šamši (Šamaš-gave-(me-)birth) was an en-priestess of [[Sin (mythology)|Nanna]] at Urum during the reign of Ur III ruler [[Shu-Sin]] (c. 2037–2028 BC), known from seals of two servants.<ref name="Frayne1997" >Frayne, Douglas, "Šulgi", Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 91-234, 1997</ref><ref>Michalowski, Piotr, "Of Bears and Men: Thoughts on the End of Šulgi’s Reign and on the Ensuing Succession", Literature as Politics, Politics as Literature: Essays on the Ancient Near East in Honor of Peter Machinist, edited by David S. Vanderhooft and Abraham Winitzer, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 285-320, 2013</ref> She is also listed as en <sup>d</sup>EN.ZU.<ref>Stol, Marten, "Priestesses", Women in the Ancient Near East, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 555-583, 2016</ref> A Niridagal was general in charge of the troops of Urum and Tiwa (A.HA) in the reign of [[Amar-Sin]] (c. 2046–2037BC).<ref>Steinkeller, Piotr, "Corvée Labor in Ur III Times", From the 21st Century B.C. to the 21st Century A.D.: Proceedings of the International Conference on Neo-Sumerian Studies Held in Madrid, 22–24 July 2010, edited by Steven J. Garfinkle and Manuel Molina, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 347-424, 2013</ref> A text from the reign of [[Ibbi-Sin]] (c. 2028–2004 BC) mentions "when the en of Nanna of Urum was installed" (u4 en-dnanna ÚRxÚ.KI-ka ba-hun-gá).<ref>Frayne, Douglas, "Ibbi-Sin", Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 361-392, 1997</ref>


It has been proposed that in Old Babylonian times the name of Urum was Elip. Elip is known from the year names of Babylonian rulers, Sumu-abum year 2 "Year the city wall of Elip was seized", Apil-Sin year 9 "Year the temple of Inanna in Elip was built", and Hammu-rabi year 17 "Year in which Hammu-rabi the king elevated a statue for Inanna of Elip". The city was the capitol of the still obscure Manana Dynasty which ruled the city of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] for a time.<ref>Charpin, D., "Recherches sur la “dynastie de Mananâ”: Essai de localisation et de chronologie", RA 72, pp. 13–40, 1978</ref><ref>de Boer, Rients, "Two early Old Babylonian "Mananâ" archives dated to the last years of Sumu-la-El", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 111, pp. 25–64, 2017</ref>
It has been proposed that in Old Babylonian times the name of Urum was Elip. Elip is known from the year names of Babylonian rulers, Sumu-abum year 2 "Year the city wall of Elip was seized", Apil-Sin year 9 "Year the temple of Inanna in Elip was built", and Hammu-rabi year 17 "Year in which Hammu-rabi the king elevated a statue for Inanna of Elip". The city was the capitol of the still obscure [[Manana Dynasty]] which ruled the city of [[Kish (Sumer)|Kish]] for a time.<ref>Charpin, D., "Recherches sur la “dynastie de Mananâ”: Essai de localisation et de chronologie", RA 72, pp. 13–40, 1978</ref><ref>de Boer, Rients, "Two early Old Babylonian "Mananâ" archives dated to the last years of Sumu-la-El", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 111, pp. 25–64, 2017</ref>


==See also==
==See also==

Latest revision as of 18:53, 13 December 2024

Tell Uqair
Urum
Tell Uqair is located in Iraq
Tell Uqair
Shown within Iraq
Alternative nameTell Uquair, Tell Aqair
LocationBabil Governorate, Iraq
RegionMesopotamia
Coordinates32°46′54″N 44°39′53″E / 32.78167°N 44.66472°E / 32.78167; 44.66472
Typetell
Site notes
Excavation dates1941–1942, 1978
ArchaeologistsS. Lloyd, Taha Baqir, F. Safar, M. Müller-Karpe

Tell Uqair (Tell 'Uquair, Tell Aqair) is a tell or settlement mound northeast of ancient Babylon, about 25 kilometers north-northeast of the ancient city of Kish, just north of Kutha, and about 50 miles (80 km) south of Baghdad in modern Babil Governorate, Iraq. It was occupied in the Ubaid period (c. 5500–3700 BC) and the Uruk period (c. 4000-3100 BC). It has been proposed as the site of the 3rd millennium BC city of Urum.

Archaeology

[edit]

Tell Uqair is a small mound just north of, and in sight of, Tell Ibrahim, the large mound marking the site of ancient Kutha. It lies about halfway between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The topography consists of two contiguous mounds, north (Mound B) and south (Mound A), separated by what is apparently the bed of an ancient canal. At maximum the hills are 6 meters above the terrain line (aside from a small 10 meter prominence on the west end of Mound A), with many levels having being eroded from the tops. The site has a total area of about 6 hectares. One mound contains a Protoliterate temple and 5 meter deep D-shaped platform (topped by a smaller 1.6 deep rectangular platform). and the other an Early Dynastic III cemetery. Two stairways, on opposite sides, ascended to the lower platform and another, halfway between, ascended to the upper platform. The temple mound (Mound A) has seven occupation levels. Buildings from the earlier Ubaid period levels are of pisé and the later Uruk period of rectangular mudbricks. After the Ubaid period only the temple and the southern half of Mound A was occupied.[1]

Beveled Rim Bowl

A number of beveled rim bowls, characteristic of the Uruk period, were found in the temple precincts.[2] The site of Tell Uqair was excavated, consisting of several soundings, during World War II, in 1941 and 1942, by an Iraqi Directorate General of Antiquities team led by Seton Lloyd, with Taha Baqir and Fuad Safar. Work proceeded for one month in 1940 and two months in 1941.[3] The buildings and artifacts discovered were primarily from the Ubaid period, the Uruk period, and the Jemdet Nasr period and included four Proto-Cuneiform tablets. An Early Dynastic, with a few later inclusions, cemetery was also excavated. The graves contained a variety of grave goods, mostly pottery. In one grave three Gutium seals were found and in another an Akkadian period seal.[4] One grave contained a pair of copper sandals.[5] Five Neolithic clay tokens were also found.[6] A sounding was done on Mound B, adjacent to the 1940 excavations pit, by a team from the Heidelberg University directed by Dr. M. Müller-Karpe in October 1978. Work focused on Early Dynastic I/II houses which were cut by ED III graves. The sounding found occupation down to the water table at 3.5 meters below the surface level of the tell.[7]

While only four Proto-cuneiform tablets were found at Tell Uqair, another 27 from there have appeared on the antiquities market and been published. Some deal with loans of barley.[8][9] A city seal on one of the tablets matched a seal on a tablet found at Jemdat Nasr. It has been proposed that this site was part of a group providing ritual products to Inana at Uruk.[10]

During the 1940s excavations a deep sounding into the Ubaid levels recovered shells. Radiocarbon dating in 1968 in produced a calibrated date of 4649 BC, midway through the Ubaid period.[11]

History

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Blau monuments plaque obverse

The site of Tell Uqair first had significant occupation during the Ubaid period, and grew to its greatest extent during the Jemdet Nasr and Uruk periods. Some Early Dynastic graves and a scattering of Akkadian and Babylonian artifacts indicate the location continued in limited use up through the time of Nebuchadnezzar.

Female figurine - Ubaid period - Ur

The most prominent discovery at Tell Uquair was the "Painted Temple", a large complex similar in design to the "White Temple" found at Uruk, with alternating buttresses and recesses. The temple was laid directly on the bitumen coated platform and was eventually fully cleaned and filled with mudbricks before a later temple.[12] Like that temple it had stepped niches with half columns.[13] Some of the original frescoes were still visible at the time of the excavation and were copied. Several frescoes were recovered intact and sent to the Baghdad Museum. The temple is believed to date to the Uruk or early Jemdet Nasr period. A small adjacent Jemdet Nasr temple was of somewhat later construction and contained large amounts of pottery from that period.[14][15]

It has been suggested, based on a toponym (ḪA.ÚR.BAR), that the Blau Monuments originated at Tell Uqair.[16]

Urum

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Victory stele of Naram Sin 9068

Because of clay tablets found at the site and its areal location, Tell Uqair has been proposed as the ancient town of Urum.[17] The toponym for Urum is written in cuneiform as ÚR×Ú.KI (cuneiform: 𒌱𒆠), URUM4 = ÚR×ḪA (cuneiform: 𒌯), besides ÚR×A.ḪA.KI (cuneiform: 𒌬𒆠), from earlier (pre-Ur III) ÚR.A.ḪA.[18]

It is known that during the 3rd millennium BC Urum was a cult site for the god Nanna.[19] It is also known that Urum was between the cities of Kish and Sippar (more specifically between Sippar and Kutha), which fits with Tell Uqair, and that under the Ur III empire one of the ensi2 was one Ur-Sin/Ur-Suena (attested in years 43 and 44 of Shulgi).[20][21] At that time Urum and TiWA/Tiwe, which was known as one of the polities that joined the great rebellion against Naram-Sin of Akkad (c. 2254–2218 BC), made up adjacent Ur III provinces.[22] In a text of Naram-Sin, on the pivotal battle in crushing the revolt, he states "In between the cities of TiWA and Urum, in the field of the god Sin, he drew up (battle lines) and awaited battle.".[23] It is known that Urum was the third most province from the north, after Sippar and then Tiwe, of the 19 provinces of Ur III.[24]

Proto-cuneiform tablet, late Uruk period

The goddess Ningal had a sanctuary at Urum.[25] According to the Sumerian Temple Hymns, the temple of Nanna at Urum was named E-Ablua.[26]

Tulid-Šamši (Šamaš-gave-(me-)birth) was an en-priestess of Nanna at Urum during the reign of Ur III ruler Shu-Sin (c. 2037–2028 BC), known from seals of two servants.[27][28] She is also listed as en dEN.ZU.[29] A Niridagal was general in charge of the troops of Urum and Tiwa (A.HA) in the reign of Amar-Sin (c. 2046–2037BC).[30] A text from the reign of Ibbi-Sin (c. 2028–2004 BC) mentions "when the en of Nanna of Urum was installed" (u4 en-dnanna ÚRxÚ.KI-ka ba-hun-gá).[31]

It has been proposed that in Old Babylonian times the name of Urum was Elip. Elip is known from the year names of Babylonian rulers, Sumu-abum year 2 "Year the city wall of Elip was seized", Apil-Sin year 9 "Year the temple of Inanna in Elip was built", and Hammu-rabi year 17 "Year in which Hammu-rabi the king elevated a statue for Inanna of Elip". The city was the capitol of the still obscure Manana Dynasty which ruled the city of Kish for a time.[32][33]

See also

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References

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  1. ^ Lloyd, Seton, "Ur—Al ‘Ubaid,‘Uqair and Eridu: An Interpretation of Some Evidence from The Flood-Pit", Iraq 22.1-2, pp. 23-31, 1960
  2. ^ Beale, Thomas Wight, "Bevelled Rim Bowls and Their Implications for Change and Economic Organization in the Later Fourth Millennium B. C.", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 37, no. 4, 1978, pp. 289–313, 1978
  3. ^ Seton Lloyd and F. Safar, "Tell Uqair: Excavations by the Iraq Government Directorate General of Antiquities in 1940 and 1941", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, v. 2, no. 2, April, pp 131-58, 1943
  4. ^ [1]J. Moon, "The Distribution of Upright-handled Jars and Stemmed Dishes in the ED. Period", Iraq 44, pp. 39–69, 1982
  5. ^ Moorey, P. R. S., "The Archaeological Evidence for Metallurgy and Related Technologies in Mesopotamia, c. 5500-2100 B.C", Iraq, vol. 44, no. 1, pp. 13–38, 1982
  6. ^ Overmann, Karenleigh A., "The Neolithic Clay Tokens", in The Material Origin of Numbers: Insights from the Archaeology of the Ancient Near East, Piscataway, NJ, USA: Gorgias Press, pp. 157–178, 2019
  7. ^ "Excavations in Iraq, 1977-78", Iraq, vol. 41, no. 2, pp. 141–81, 1979
  8. ^ Monaco, Salvatore F., "Loan and Interest in the Archaic Texts" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und Vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 102, no. 2, pp. 165-178, 2013
  9. ^ Robert K. Englund and Roger J. Matthews, "proto-cuneiform Texts from Diverse Collections", Materialien zu den frühen Schriftzeugnissen des Vorderen Orients Bd. 4. Berlin: Gebr. Mann, 1996 ISBN 978-3786118756
  10. ^ Steinkeller, Piotr, "Archaic City Seals and the Question of Early Babylonian Unity", Riches Hidden in Secret Places: Ancient Near Eastern Studies in Memory of Thorkild Jacobsen, edited by Tzvi Abusch, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 249-258, 2002
  11. ^ Lawn, Barbara, "University of Pennsylvania radiocarbon dates XV", Radiocarbon 15.2, pp. 367-381, 1973
  12. ^ Abid, Ameer Najim, "The architecture of white temples in the cities of ancient central and southern Mesopotamia (Uruk-Umm Al-Aqarib-Tal Al-Uqair) A comparative study", ISIN Journal 5, pp. 53-79, 2023
  13. ^ Ławecka, Dorota, "Bent or Straight Axis? Temple Plans in Early Dynastic Southern Babylonia", Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 104, no. 2, pp. 206-228, 2014
  14. ^ Dermech, S., "The Tell'Uqair temple (4th mill. BC): colours and iconography", in BAF-Online: Proceedings of the Berner Altorientalisches Forum (Vol. 1), 2016
  15. ^ Lloyd, S, "Recent Discoveries of the Iraq Directorate of Antiquities", Palestine Exploration Quarterly 75(2), pp. 105-109, 1943
  16. ^ Balke, Thomas E., "The Interplay of Material, Text, and Iconography in Some of the Oldest “Legal” Documents", Materiality of Writing in Early Mesopotamia, edited by Thomas E. Balke and Christina Tsouparopoulou, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2016, pp. 73-94, 2016
  17. ^ Robert K. Englund, "Proto-Cuneiform Texts from Diverse Collections", (Materialien Zu Den Fruhen Schriftzeugnissen Des Vorderen Ori), Gebr. Mann Verlag, 1996, ISBN 3-7861-1875-2
  18. ^ Piotr Steinkeller, "On the Reading and Location of the Toponyms ÚR×Ú.KI and A.ḪA.KI", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 32, No. 1, pp. 23–33, Jan. 1980
  19. ^ Yuhong, Wu, and Stephanie Dalley, "The Origins of the Manana Dynasty at Kish, and the Assyrian King List", Iraq, vol. 52, pp. 159–65, 1990
  20. ^ Sharlach, Tonia. "Princely Employments in the Reign of Shulgi", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1-68, 2022
  21. ^ Sallaberger, W., "Ur III-Zeit", in Mesopotamien: Akkade-Zeit und Ur III-Zeit, OBO 160/3, edited by W. Sallaberger, and A. Westenholz, Freiburg: Universitätsverlag, pp. 121–390, 1999
  22. ^ Steinkeller, Piotr. "Two Sargonic Seals from Urusagrig and the Question of Urusagrig’s Location" Zeitschrift für Assyriologie und vorderasiatische Archäologie, vol. 112, no. 1, 2022, pp. 1-10
  23. ^ [2]Douglas R. Frayne, "Akkad", The Sargonic and Gutian Periods (2334–2113), University of Toronto Press, pp. 5-218, 1993 ISBN 0-8020-0593-4
  24. ^ Sharlach, Tonia, "Provincial Taxation and the Ur III State" CM 26. Leiden: Brill, 2004
  25. ^ Frayne, Douglas R. and Stuckey, Johanna H., "N", A Handbook of Gods and Goddesses of the Ancient Near East: Three Thousand Deities of Anatolia, Syria, Israel, Sumer, Babylonia, Assyria, and Elam, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 219-287, 2021
  26. ^ Helle, Sophus, "The Temple Hymns", Enheduana: The Complete Poems of the World's First Author, New Haven: Yale University Press, pp. 53-94, 2023
  27. ^ Frayne, Douglas, "Šulgi", Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 91-234, 1997
  28. ^ Michalowski, Piotr, "Of Bears and Men: Thoughts on the End of Šulgi’s Reign and on the Ensuing Succession", Literature as Politics, Politics as Literature: Essays on the Ancient Near East in Honor of Peter Machinist, edited by David S. Vanderhooft and Abraham Winitzer, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 285-320, 2013
  29. ^ Stol, Marten, "Priestesses", Women in the Ancient Near East, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, pp. 555-583, 2016
  30. ^ Steinkeller, Piotr, "Corvée Labor in Ur III Times", From the 21st Century B.C. to the 21st Century A.D.: Proceedings of the International Conference on Neo-Sumerian Studies Held in Madrid, 22–24 July 2010, edited by Steven J. Garfinkle and Manuel Molina, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 347-424, 2013
  31. ^ Frayne, Douglas, "Ibbi-Sin", Ur III Period (2112-2004 BC), Toronto: University of Toronto Press, pp. 361-392, 1997
  32. ^ Charpin, D., "Recherches sur la “dynastie de Mananâ”: Essai de localisation et de chronologie", RA 72, pp. 13–40, 1978
  33. ^ de Boer, Rients, "Two early Old Babylonian "Mananâ" archives dated to the last years of Sumu-la-El", Revue d’Assyriologie et d’archéologie Orientale, vol. 111, pp. 25–64, 2017

Further reading

[edit]
  • Gilbert J. P. McEwan, "The Writing of Urum in Pre-Ur III Sources", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, Vol. 33, No. 1, pp. 56, Jan. 1981
  • M. W. Green, "Urum and Uqair", Acta Sumerologica, vol. 8, pp.77–83, 1986
  • Seton Lloyd, "Ur-Al `Ubaid, Uquair and Eridu, in Ur in Retrospect: In Memory of Sir Leonard Woolley", Iraq, vol. 22, pp. 23–31, 1960
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