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|native_name_lang =
|native_name_lang =
|image = Dhyānabhadra.png
|image = Dhyānabhadra.png
|caption = Portrait of Dhyānabhadra at Silleuk Temple, South Korea
|caption = Portrait of Dhyānabhadra at [[Silleuksa]], [[South Korea]]
|alias =
|alias =
|dharma name =
|dharma name =
|birth_date = {{circa|1289 CE}}
|birth_date = {{circa|1289 CE}}
|birth_place = [[Magadha]] (modern-day [[Bihar]], India)
|birth_place = [[Magadha (Mahajanapada)|Magadha]] (modern-day [[Bihar]], India)
|death_date = {{circa|1363 CE}}
|death_date = {{circa|1363 CE}}
|death_place = [[Goryeo]]
|death_place = [[Goryeo]]
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'''Dhyānabhadra''' (also known as '''Sunyadisya''', '''Chi-Gong''' and '''Zhikong Chanxian''') (1289–1363 C.E.) was an Indian [[Buddhist]] monk and translator born in the [[Magadha]] region.
'''Dhyānabhadra''' (also known as '''Sunyadisya''', '''Chi-Gong''' and '''Zhikong Chanxian''') (1289–1363 C.E.) was an Indian [[Buddhist]] monk and translator who was originally ordained at the monastery of [[Nalanda]].


He travelled throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] and later in life travelled through [[East Asia]] arriving first in [[Tibet]] and later to [[China]] and [[Korea]] during the period when the [[Yuan dynasty]] was ruling the regions.<ref name=Buswell2014>{{cite book |last1=Buswell |first1=Robert |last2=Lopez |first2=Donald |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691157863 |pages=1056 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EGmYDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> He was affiliated with [[Mahayana]] school of [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Orzech |first1=Charles |last2=Sørensen |first2=Henrik |last3=Payne |first3=Richard |title=Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004184916 |pages=609–610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC&q=dhyānabhadra}}</ref>
Later in life, he travelled throughout the [[Indian subcontinent]] and eventually reached [[East Asia]] arriving first in [[Tibet]] and later to [[China]] and [[Korea]] during the period when the [[Yuan dynasty]] was ruling the regions.<ref name=Buswell2014>{{cite book |last1=Buswell |first1=Robert |last2=Lopez |first2=Donald |title=The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism |date=2014 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=9780691157863 |pages=1056 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EGmYDwAAQBAJ}}</ref> He was affiliated with the [[Mahayana]] school of [[Buddhism]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Orzech |first1=Charles |last2=Sørensen |first2=Henrik |last3=Payne |first3=Richard |title=Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004184916 |pages=609–610 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F0XNX3N1a2AC&q=dhyānabhadra}}</ref> Along with [[Śāriputra (15th-century)|Śāriputra]] (1335-1426 CE) and [[Vanaratna]] (1384-1468 CE), Dhyānabhadra is among the last recorded Indian Buddhist figures of the pre-modern era.<ref>{{cite book |last1=McKeown |first1=Arthur |title=Guardian of a Dying Flame Śāriputra (c. 1335-1426) and the End of Late Indian Buddhism |date=2018 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=9780674984356 |pages=20–28 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Fb86tAEACAAJ}}</ref>


==Sources==
==Sources==
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[[File:Nalanda, Buddhist university 04.jpg|thumb|Nalanda Mahavihara, where Dhyānabhadra was ordained as a monk at the age of eight]]
[[File:Nalanda, Buddhist university 04.jpg|thumb|Nalanda Mahavihara, where Dhyānabhadra was ordained as a monk at the age of eight]]
===Education===
===Education===
Korean sources including the writings of [[Yi Saek]] detail that Dhyānabhadra was born as the third son of a minor chief in [[Magadha]] in 1289 C.E. Dhyānabhadra grew up in a period when much of [[India]] had begun to feel the threat of [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic invasions]]. The sources from his life detail that Dhyānabhadra had a natural affinity for [[ascetism]] from an early age. He was able to memorise many religious texts and also avoided foods that were said to "arouse the passions" including [[meat]] and [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]].<ref name=Dziwenka>{{cite journal |last1=Dziwenka |first1=Ronald James |title=‘The last light of Indian Buddhism’—The monk Zhikong in 14th century China and Korea (PhD dissertation) |journal=The University of Arizona |date=2010 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/743818381/}}</ref>
Korean sources including the writings of [[Yi Saek]] detail that Dhyānabhadra was born as the third son of a minor chief in [[Magadha (region)|Magadha]] in 1289 C.E. Dhyānabhadra grew up in a period when much of [[India]] had begun to feel the threat of [[Muslim conquests in the Indian subcontinent|Islamic invasions]]. The sources from his life detail that Dhyānabhadra had a natural affinity for [[asceticism]] from an early age. He was able to memorise many religious texts and also avoided foods that were said to "arouse the passions" including [[meat]] and [[Alcoholic beverage|alcohol]].<ref name=Dziwenka>{{cite journal |last1=Dziwenka |first1=Ronald James |title='The last light of Indian Buddhism'—The monk Zhikong in 14th century China and Korea (PhD dissertation) |journal=The University of Arizona |date=2010 |url=https://www.proquest.com/docview/743818381/}}</ref>


At the age of eight, his father, the king, became ill and his mother was advised by a [[fortune teller]] that he would recover if her son was ordained as a monk. Her mother then made the difficult decision to enrol Dhyānabhadra at [[Nalanda]] monastery at some point between 1295 and 1298 where he studied under the guidance of the [[Mahayana]] teacher Vinayabhadra.<ref name=Buswell2014 /> As part of his initiation at Nalanda, his head was shaven and he received the [[Five precepts|five precepts]].
At the age of eight, his father, the king, became ill and his mother was advised by a [[fortune teller]] that he would recover if her son was ordained as a monk. Her mother then made the difficult decision to enrol Dhyānabhadra at [[Nalanda]] monastery at some point between 1295 and 1298 where he studied under the guidance of the [[Mahayana]] teacher Vinayabhadra.<ref name=Buswell2014 /> As part of his initiation at Nalanda, his head was shaven and he received the [[Five precepts|five precepts]].
Line 52: Line 52:
Vinayabhadra encouraged him to travel to [[Sri Lanka]] where he was to study under a monk named Samantaprabhāsa who resided in [[Sigiriya]] so that he could study the "meaning of truth" in more detail. On his journey to Sri Lanka, he travelled through regions like [[Rarh region|Radha]] in Bengal and [[Dantapuram]] in [[Odisha]]. In Dantapuram, he is said to have converted the "promiscuous and naked men and women" to Buddhism. After this, he arrived in the city of [[Kanchipuram]] in [[South India]] where he engaged in a debate with a master of the Avatamsaka-sūtra. After six months of study with Samantaprabhāsa in Sri Lanka, he travelled back and forth between the southwest part of the subcontinent and Sri Lanka. After a final visit to Sri Lanka, Dhyānabhadra travelled northward from the southern tip of India up the western coast. He made attempts to proselytise [[Buddhism]] among the [[Hindus]] and [[Muslims]] that he came across but had mixed success. In the country of ''Drāvati'', the people were more open to Buddhism but in [[Karnataka|Karana]] he experienced hostility. Dhyānabhadra then travelled through the countries of [[Sindh]], [[Jalandhar]] and [[Kashmir]]. In Kashmir, he found that the people "greatly revered Buddhism" although some followed "heretical views" and he attempted to convert them to his teachings.<ref name= Dziwenka />
Vinayabhadra encouraged him to travel to [[Sri Lanka]] where he was to study under a monk named Samantaprabhāsa who resided in [[Sigiriya]] so that he could study the "meaning of truth" in more detail. On his journey to Sri Lanka, he travelled through regions like [[Rarh region|Radha]] in Bengal and [[Dantapuram]] in [[Odisha]]. In Dantapuram, he is said to have converted the "promiscuous and naked men and women" to Buddhism. After this, he arrived in the city of [[Kanchipuram]] in [[South India]] where he engaged in a debate with a master of the Avatamsaka-sūtra. After six months of study with Samantaprabhāsa in Sri Lanka, he travelled back and forth between the southwest part of the subcontinent and Sri Lanka. After a final visit to Sri Lanka, Dhyānabhadra travelled northward from the southern tip of India up the western coast. He made attempts to proselytise [[Buddhism]] among the [[Hindus]] and [[Muslims]] that he came across but had mixed success. In the country of ''Drāvati'', the people were more open to Buddhism but in [[Karnataka|Karana]] he experienced hostility. Dhyānabhadra then travelled through the countries of [[Sindh]], [[Jalandhar]] and [[Kashmir]]. In Kashmir, he found that the people "greatly revered Buddhism" although some followed "heretical views" and he attempted to convert them to his teachings.<ref name= Dziwenka />


Following his stay in Kashmir, he travelled through Anavapata, [[Mithila (region)|Tirhut]] and Tehri. Dhyānabhadra did not stay in Tirhut as he commented in his writings that "Brahmanism" was the dominant belief system in the region. Once he reached [[Nepal]], the local King, who was aware of his fame and knowledge, brought him to his [[palace]] to [[lecture]] on the [[dharma]].
Following his stay in Kashmir, he travelled through Anavapata, [[Mithila (region)|Tirhut]] and Tehri. Dhyānabhadra did not stay in Tirhut as he commented in his writings that "Brahmanism" was the dominant belief system in the region. Once he reached [[Nepal]], the local King, who was aware of his fame and knowledge, brought him to his [[palace]] to [[lecture]] on the [[dharma]].


===East Asia===
===East Asia===
In 1314, he travelled from Nepal to [[Tibet]] where he encountered difficulties crossing the [[Himalayas]] surviving only on wild fruits. Upon his arrival in [[Tibet]], he joined with another North Indian monk called ''Mahāpandit'' and they endeavoured to travel to [[Yuan China]] together. The winter capital of the Yuan was [[Khanbaliq]] (also known as Yanjing) and Dhyānabhadra stayed with Mahāpandit only for a short time. He travelled through different parts of Yuan China with the goal being to proselytise the people, particularly around the frontier regions where the locals had little to no exposure to Buddhist teachings. One of these regions was [[Yunnan]] where he spent five to seven years finally leaving around 1320.<ref name= Dziwenka />
In 1314, he travelled from Nepal to [[Tibet]] where he encountered difficulties crossing the [[Himalayas]] surviving only on wild fruits. Upon his arrival in [[Tibet]], he joined with another North Indian monk called ''Mahāpandit'' and they endeavoured to travel to [[Yuan China]] together. The winter capital of the Yuan was [[Khanbaliq]] (also known as Yanjing) and Dhyānabhadra stayed with Mahāpandit only for a short time. He travelled through different parts of Yuan China with the goal being to proselytise the people, particularly around the frontier regions where the locals had little to no exposure to Buddhist teachings. One of these regions was [[Yunnan]] where he spent five to seven years finally leaving around 1320.<ref name= Dziwenka />


He also travelled to Korea where he founded the Hwaeomsa Temple in 1328, modelled on Nalanda.<ref name=prasad2021>{{cite book |last1=Nath Prasad |first1=Birendra |title=A 'Nālandā Monk' in the Late Thirteenth–Early Fourteenth Century India, Tibet, China and Korea: A Note on the 'Poetic Inscription' on a Korean Stūpa Erected in the Memory of Dhyānabhadra |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781032117225 |pages=140–149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lbk6EAAAQBAJ&dq=Dhy%C4%81nabhadra&pg=PT135}}</ref> He was frequently recalled from Korea by Yuan emperors, [[Yesün Temür (Yuan dynasty)|Yesün Temür]] and [[Ragibagh Khan]], to serve in their courts. In total, he spent two years and seven months in Korea, travelling across the country.<ref name= Dziwenka /> A stupa inscription claims that he died in China in 1366 C.E.
He also travelled to Korea where he founded the Hwaeomsa Temple in 1328, modelled on Nalanda.<ref name=prasad2021>{{cite book |last1=Nath Prasad |first1=Birendra |title=A 'Nālandā Monk' in the Late Thirteenth–Early Fourteenth Century India, Tibet, China and Korea: A Note on the 'Poetic Inscription' on a Korean Stūpa Erected in the Memory of Dhyānabhadra |date=2021 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=9781032117225 |pages=140–149 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Lbk6EAAAQBAJ&dq=Dhy%C4%81nabhadra&pg=PT135}}</ref> He was frequently recalled from Korea by Yuan emperors, [[Yesün Temür (Yuan dynasty)|Yesün Temür]] and [[Ragibagh Khan]], to serve in their courts. In total, he spent two years and seven months in Korea, travelling across the country.<ref name= Dziwenka /> A stupa inscription claims that he died in Korea in 1363/1366 C.E.
During his time travelling through China and Korea, it was suggested that he also had a role in instigating revolts against the [[Yuan dynasty|ruling Mongols]]. He also had audiences with the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Biran |first1=Michael Biran |title=The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire |date=17 August 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=839–840 |isbn=978-1-009-30197-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A87eEAAAQBAJ&dq=Zhikong+Chanxian&pg=RA1-PT1728}}</ref> 10 years following his death, and after the Mongols had been overthrown from Korea, his disciples erected a [[stupa]] on top of his remains. Much of what we know about him comes from the poetic inscription left on his stupa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thapa |first1=S |date=2006 |title=Transmission of Indian Buddhist Thought in East Asian Historiography: Dhyānabhadra (Chi-Gong) and Buddhism in 14th Century Korea. |journal=Sixth World Korean Studies Congress}}</ref>
During his time travelling through China and Korea, it was suggested that he also had a role in instigating revolts against the [[Yuan dynasty|ruling Mongols]]. He also had audiences with the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Biran |first1=Michael Biran |title=The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire |date=17 August 2023 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages=839–840 |isbn=978-1-009-30197-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A87eEAAAQBAJ&dq=Zhikong+Chanxian&pg=RA1-PT1728}}</ref> 10 years following his death, and after the Mongols had been overthrown from Korea, his disciples erected a [[stupa]] on top of his remains. Much of what we know about him comes from the poetic inscription left on his stupa.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Thapa |first1=S |date=2006 |title=Transmission of Indian Buddhist Thought in East Asian Historiography: Dhyānabhadra (Chi-Gong) and Buddhism in 14th Century Korea. |journal=Sixth World Korean Studies Congress}}</ref>


Line 66: Line 66:


===Primacy of the Precepts===
===Primacy of the Precepts===
Dhyānabhadra placed a significant emphasis on the precepts as a core element of Buddhist practice. He viewed precepts not merely as rigid rules but as tools for guiding practitioners toward enlightenment. Dhyānabhadra’s perspective on precepts was rooted in their potential to act as a "focusing mechanism" that eventually leads to the realization of their ultimate emptiness. He argued that while precepts are initially engaged with as part of the samsaric world, they must ultimately be transcended as one approaches enlightenment. For Dhyānabhadra, following precepts involves both adherence and a deeper understanding of their conventional and ultimate significance. After realization, the practice of precepts transforms into an expression of the "True Mind" of the Buddha, which transcends dualistic notions of right and wrong​.<ref name= Dziwenka />
Dhyānabhadra placed a significant emphasis on the precepts as a core element of Buddhist practice. He viewed precepts not merely as rigid rules but as tools for guiding practitioners toward enlightenment. Dhyānabhadra’s perspective on precepts was rooted in their potential to act as a "focusing mechanism" that eventually leads to the realization of their ultimate emptiness. He argued that while precepts are initially engaged with as part of the samsaric world, they must ultimately be transcended as one approaches enlightenment. For Dhyānabhadra, following precepts involves both adherence and a deeper understanding of their conventional and ultimate significance. After realization, the practice of precepts transforms into an expression of the "True Mind" of the Buddha, which transcends dualistic notions of right and wrong.<ref name= Dziwenka />


===Confronting Heterodoxy===
===Confronting Heterodoxy===

Revision as of 11:28, 29 November 2024

Zhikong Chanxian
Dhyānabhadra
Portrait of Dhyānabhadra at Silleuksa, South Korea
Title108th Chan Patriarch
Personal
Bornc. 1289 CE
Magadha (modern-day Bihar, India)
Diedc. 1363 CE
Goryeo
ReligionBuddhism
LineageMahayana
EducationNalanda

Dhyānabhadra (also known as Sunyadisya, Chi-Gong and Zhikong Chanxian) (1289–1363 C.E.) was an Indian Buddhist monk and translator who was originally ordained at the monastery of Nalanda.

Later in life, he travelled throughout the Indian subcontinent and eventually reached East Asia arriving first in Tibet and later to China and Korea during the period when the Yuan dynasty was ruling the regions.[1] He was affiliated with the Mahayana school of Buddhism.[2] Along with Śāriputra (1335-1426 CE) and Vanaratna (1384-1468 CE), Dhyānabhadra is among the last recorded Indian Buddhist figures of the pre-modern era.[3]

Sources

Much of what we know about Dhyanabhadra comes from a collection of primary sources from both China and Korea. These include:[4]

  • Record of Chan Essentials by the Monk Zhikong (Chanyao lu)
  • Zhikong’s Travel Record (Xinglu)
  • Zhikong’s Text of the Precepts of (Neither Arising Nor) Non-arising (Wushengjie Jing)

Life

Nalanda Mahavihara, where Dhyānabhadra was ordained as a monk at the age of eight

Education

Korean sources including the writings of Yi Saek detail that Dhyānabhadra was born as the third son of a minor chief in Magadha in 1289 C.E. Dhyānabhadra grew up in a period when much of India had begun to feel the threat of Islamic invasions. The sources from his life detail that Dhyānabhadra had a natural affinity for asceticism from an early age. He was able to memorise many religious texts and also avoided foods that were said to "arouse the passions" including meat and alcohol.[5]

At the age of eight, his father, the king, became ill and his mother was advised by a fortune teller that he would recover if her son was ordained as a monk. Her mother then made the difficult decision to enrol Dhyānabhadra at Nalanda monastery at some point between 1295 and 1298 where he studied under the guidance of the Mahayana teacher Vinayabhadra.[1] As part of his initiation at Nalanda, his head was shaven and he received the five precepts. In Nalanda, Dhyānabhadra received an education in various texts including the Maha-Prajñāpāramitā-sūtra, Lotus Sutra and the Buddhāvataṃsaka Sūtra. He was also required to familiarise himself with non-Buddhist teachings.[5]

Vinayabhadra encouraged him to travel to Sri Lanka where he was to study under a monk named Samantaprabhāsa who resided in Sigiriya so that he could study the "meaning of truth" in more detail. On his journey to Sri Lanka, he travelled through regions like Radha in Bengal and Dantapuram in Odisha. In Dantapuram, he is said to have converted the "promiscuous and naked men and women" to Buddhism. After this, he arrived in the city of Kanchipuram in South India where he engaged in a debate with a master of the Avatamsaka-sūtra. After six months of study with Samantaprabhāsa in Sri Lanka, he travelled back and forth between the southwest part of the subcontinent and Sri Lanka. After a final visit to Sri Lanka, Dhyānabhadra travelled northward from the southern tip of India up the western coast. He made attempts to proselytise Buddhism among the Hindus and Muslims that he came across but had mixed success. In the country of Drāvati, the people were more open to Buddhism but in Karana he experienced hostility. Dhyānabhadra then travelled through the countries of Sindh, Jalandhar and Kashmir. In Kashmir, he found that the people "greatly revered Buddhism" although some followed "heretical views" and he attempted to convert them to his teachings.[5]

Following his stay in Kashmir, he travelled through Anavapata, Tirhut and Tehri. Dhyānabhadra did not stay in Tirhut as he commented in his writings that "Brahmanism" was the dominant belief system in the region. Once he reached Nepal, the local King, who was aware of his fame and knowledge, brought him to his palace to lecture on the dharma.

East Asia

In 1314, he travelled from Nepal to Tibet where he encountered difficulties crossing the Himalayas surviving only on wild fruits. Upon his arrival in Tibet, he joined with another North Indian monk called Mahāpandit and they endeavoured to travel to Yuan China together. The winter capital of the Yuan was Khanbaliq (also known as Yanjing) and Dhyānabhadra stayed with Mahāpandit only for a short time. He travelled through different parts of Yuan China with the goal being to proselytise the people, particularly around the frontier regions where the locals had little to no exposure to Buddhist teachings. One of these regions was Yunnan where he spent five to seven years finally leaving around 1320.[5]

He also travelled to Korea where he founded the Hwaeomsa Temple in 1328, modelled on Nalanda.[4] He was frequently recalled from Korea by Yuan emperors, Yesün Temür and Ragibagh Khan, to serve in their courts. In total, he spent two years and seven months in Korea, travelling across the country.[5] A stupa inscription claims that he died in Korea in 1363/1366 C.E. During his time travelling through China and Korea, it was suggested that he also had a role in instigating revolts against the ruling Mongols. He also had audiences with the Mongol rulers of the Yuan dynasty.[6] 10 years following his death, and after the Mongols had been overthrown from Korea, his disciples erected a stupa on top of his remains. Much of what we know about him comes from the poetic inscription left on his stupa.[7]

He was so revered in Korea that after he died in 1363, King Gongmin of Goryeo had his relics brought back to the country where they were first placed in the royal palace and later placed at the Hoemsa temple.[8]

Gongmin of Goryeo

Teachings and practice

Primacy of the Precepts

Dhyānabhadra placed a significant emphasis on the precepts as a core element of Buddhist practice. He viewed precepts not merely as rigid rules but as tools for guiding practitioners toward enlightenment. Dhyānabhadra’s perspective on precepts was rooted in their potential to act as a "focusing mechanism" that eventually leads to the realization of their ultimate emptiness. He argued that while precepts are initially engaged with as part of the samsaric world, they must ultimately be transcended as one approaches enlightenment. For Dhyānabhadra, following precepts involves both adherence and a deeper understanding of their conventional and ultimate significance. After realization, the practice of precepts transforms into an expression of the "True Mind" of the Buddha, which transcends dualistic notions of right and wrong.[5]

Confronting Heterodoxy

Dhyānabhadra actively confronted "heterodox" practices throughout his life. He encountered various forms of heterodoxy in his travels across different regions, including practices that deviated from orthodox Buddhist teachings. Dhyānabhadra’s method of confronting these practices was direct and often involved using his ethical fortitude as a teaching tool. For instance, he once resisted temptation in a challenging situation to demonstrate the strength of Buddhist ethics. Additionally, he employed his understanding of Buddhist teachings to challenge and correct misconceptions and erroneous practices among different groups. In some instances, Dhyānabhadra's approach was assertive, using physical actions to convey the seriousness of adhering to the correct path.[5]

Meditation

Meditation was another crucial component of Dhyānabhadra’s practice, though his interpretation was distinctive. He described meditative contemplation as a state that transcends dualities and conventional practices. For Dhyānabhadra, true meditation was not simply sitting in silence or avoiding the material world; instead, it was a dynamic and all-encompassing state of awareness that resided beyond ordinary distinctions. This view reflects his broader philosophical approach, which often negated simplistic definitions and emphasised a deeper, more integrated understanding of practice. Dhyānabhadra’s teachings on meditation also highlight the importance of maintaining awareness in all activities, rather than restricting meditation to formal sitting practice.[5]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b Buswell, Robert; Lopez, Donald (2014). The Princeton Dictionary of Buddhism. Princeton University Press. p. 1056. ISBN 9780691157863.
  2. ^ Orzech, Charles; Sørensen, Henrik; Payne, Richard (2011). Esoteric Buddhism and the Tantras in East Asia. Brill. pp. 609–610. ISBN 9789004184916.
  3. ^ McKeown, Arthur (2018). Guardian of a Dying Flame Śāriputra (c. 1335-1426) and the End of Late Indian Buddhism. Harvard University Press. pp. 20–28. ISBN 9780674984356.
  4. ^ a b Nath Prasad, Birendra (2021). A 'Nālandā Monk' in the Late Thirteenth–Early Fourteenth Century India, Tibet, China and Korea: A Note on the 'Poetic Inscription' on a Korean Stūpa Erected in the Memory of Dhyānabhadra. Routledge. pp. 140–149. ISBN 9781032117225.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Dziwenka, Ronald James (2010). "'The last light of Indian Buddhism'—The monk Zhikong in 14th century China and Korea (PhD dissertation)". The University of Arizona.
  6. ^ Biran, Michael Biran (17 August 2023). The Cambridge History of the Mongol Empire. Cambridge University Press. pp. 839–840. ISBN 978-1-009-30197-8.
  7. ^ Thapa, S (2006). "Transmission of Indian Buddhist Thought in East Asian Historiography: Dhyānabhadra (Chi-Gong) and Buddhism in 14th Century Korea". Sixth World Korean Studies Congress.
  8. ^ Huntley Grayson, James (2002). Korea: A Religious History. Routledge. p. 99. ISBN 9781136869181.
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