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{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{speciesbox
{{speciesbox
|image = Mature Rice (India) by Augustus Binu.jpg
|image=Mature Rice (India) by Augustus Binu.jpg
|image_caption=Mature seed heads
|image_caption=Mature seed heads
|image2=Oryza sativa at Kadavoor.jpg
|image2=Oryza sativa at Kadavoor.jpg
|image2_caption=Inflorescence
|image2_caption=Inflorescence
|genus = Oryza
|genus=Oryza
|species = sativa
|species=sativa
|authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|authority=[[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]
|synonyms_ref = <ref name="316812-2" >{{cite web |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:316812-2 |title=''Oryza sativa'' L. |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2017 |website= [[Plants of the World Online]] |publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=21 December 2020 }}</ref>
|synonyms_ref=<ref name="316812-2" >{{cite web |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:316812-2 |title=''Oryza sativa'' L. |author=<!--Not stated--> |date=2017 |website= [[Plants of the World Online]] |publisher=Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |access-date=21 December 2020 }}</ref>
|synonyms = {{collapsible list|
|synonyms={{collapsible list|
*''Oryza aristata'' <small>Blanco</small>
* ''Oryza aristata'' <small>Blanco</small>
*''Oryza communissima'' <small>Lour.</small>
* ''Oryza communissima'' <small>Lour.</small>
*''Oryza denudata'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza denudata'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
*''Oryza elongata'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza elongata'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
*''Oryza formosana'' <small>Masam. & Suzuki</small>
* ''Oryza formosana'' <small>Masam. & Suzuki</small>
*''Oryza glutinosa'' <small>Lour.</small>
* ''Oryza glutinosa'' <small>Lour.</small>
*''Oryza marginata'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza marginata'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
*''Oryza montana'' <small>Lour.</small>
* ''Oryza montana'' <small>Lour.</small>
*''Oryza mutica'' <small>Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza mutica'' <small>Steud.</small>
*''Oryza palustris'' <small>Salisb.</small>
* ''Oryza palustris'' <small>Salisb.</small>
*''Oryza parviflora'' <small>P.Beauv.</small>
* ''Oryza parviflora'' <small>P.Beauv.</small>
*''Oryza perennis'' <small>Moench</small>
* ''Oryza perennis'' <small>Moench</small>
*''Oryza plena'' <small>(Prain) N.P.Chowdhury</small>
* ''Oryza plena'' <small>(Prain) N.P.Chowdhury</small>
*''Oryza praecox'' <small>Lour.</small>
* ''Oryza praecox'' <small>Lour.</small>
*''Oryza pubescens'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza pubescens'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
*''Oryza pumila'' <small>Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza pumila'' <small>Steud.</small>
*''Oryza repens'' <small>Buch.-Ham. ex Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza repens'' <small>Buch.-Ham. ex Steud.</small>
*''Oryza rubribarbis'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza rubribarbis'' <small>(Desv.) Steud.</small>
*''Oryza sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' <small>Shig.Kato</small>
* ''Oryza sativa'' subsp. ''indica'' <small>Shig.Kato</small>
*''Oryza sativa'' subsp. ''japonica'' <small>Shig.Kato</small>
* ''Oryza sativa'' subsp. ''japonica'' <small>Shig.Kato</small>
*''Oryza segetalis'' <small>Russell ex Steud.</small>
* ''Oryza segetalis'' <small>Russell ex Steud.</small>
}}}}
}}}}


'''''Oryza sativa''''' is much the more common of the two [[rice]] species cultivated as a [[cereal]]; it was [[History of rice cultivation|first domesticated]] in the [[Yangtze River]] basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago.<ref name="Normile">{{cite journal |last=Normile |first=Dennis |year=1997 |title=Yangtze seen as earliest rice site |journal=Science |volume=275 |issue=5298 |pages=309–310 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5298.309 |s2cid=140691699}}</ref><ref name="Vaughanetal2008">{{cite journal |last1=Vaughan |first1=D.A. |last2=Lu |first2=B. |last3=Tomooka |first3=N. |year=2008 |title=The evolving story of rice evolution |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222526251 |journal=Plant Science |volume=174 |issue=4 |pages=394–408 |doi=10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016}}</ref><ref name="harris">{{cite book |last=Harris |first=David R. |title=The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-85728-538-3 |page=565}}</ref><ref name="Zhang2012">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jianping |last2=Lu |first2=Houyuan |last3=Gu |first3=Wanfa |last4=Wu |first4=Naiqin |last5=Zhou |first5=Kunshu |last6=Hu |first6=Yayi |last7=Xin |first7=Yingjun |last8=Wang |first8=Can |last9=Kashkush |first9=Khalil |date=December 17, 2012 |title=Early Mixed Farming of Millet and Rice 7800 Years Ago in the Middle Yellow River Region, China |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=e52146 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...752146Z |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0052146 |pmc=3524165 |pmid=23284907 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
'''''Oryza sativa''''', having the common name '''Asian cultivated rice''',<ref>{{cite web|author= |title=Oryza sativa (Asian cultivated rice) |publisher=National Library of Medicine |url= https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/taxonomy/Oryza-sativa |date= |accessdate=24 July 2024 }}</ref> is the much more common of the two [[rice]] species cultivated as a [[cereal]], the other species being ''[[Oryza glaberrima|O. glaberrima]]'', African rice. It was [[History of rice cultivation|first domesticated]] in the [[Yangtze River]] basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago.<ref name="Normile">{{cite journal |last=Normile |first=Dennis |year=1997 |title=Yangtze seen as earliest rice site |journal=Science |volume=275 |issue=5298 |pages=309–310 |doi=10.1126/science.275.5298.309 |s2cid=140691699}}</ref><ref name="Vaughanetal2008">{{cite journal |last1=Vaughan |first1=D.A. |last2=Lu |first2=B. |last3=Tomooka |first3=N. |year=2008 |title=The evolving story of rice evolution |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222526251 |journal=Plant Science |volume=174 |issue=4 |pages=394–408 |doi=10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016|bibcode=2008PlnSc.174..394V }}</ref><ref name="harris">{{cite book |last=Harris |first=David R. |title=The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia |publisher=Psychology Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-1-85728-538-3 |page=565}}</ref><ref name="Zhang2012">{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jianping |last2=Lu |first2=Houyuan |last3=Gu |first3=Wanfa |last4=Wu |first4=Naiqin |last5=Zhou |first5=Kunshu |last6=Hu |first6=Yayi |last7=Xin |first7=Yingjun |last8=Wang |first8=Can |last9=Kashkush |first9=Khalil |date=December 17, 2012 |title=Early Mixed Farming of Millet and Rice 7800 Years Ago in the Middle Yellow River Region, China |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=e52146 |bibcode=2012PLoSO...752146Z |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0052146 |pmc=3524165 |pmid=23284907 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


''Oryza sativa'' belongs to the genus ''[[Oryza]]'' and the [[BOP clade]] in the grass family [[Poaceae]]. With a [[genome]] consisting of 430{{nbsp}}[[megabase|Mbp]] across 12 [[chromosome]]s, it is renowned for being easy to [[Genetically modified rice|genetically modify]] and is a [[model organism]] for the study of the biology [[cereal]]s and [[Monocotyledon|monocots]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Haberer |first=Georg |last2=Mayer |first2=Klaus F.X. |last3=Spannagl |first3=Manuel |date=2016-04-01 |title=The big five of the monocot genomes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369526616300048 |journal=Current Opinion in Plant Biology |series=SI: 30: Genome studies and molecular genetics |volume=30 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2016.01.004 |issn=1369-5266}}</ref>
''Oryza sativa'' belongs to the genus ''[[Oryza]]'' and the [[BOP clade]] in the grass family [[Poaceae]]. With a [[genome]] consisting of 430{{nbsp}}[[megabase|Mbp]] across 12 [[chromosome]]s, it is renowned for being easy to [[Genetically modified rice|genetically modify]] and is a [[model organism]] for the study of the biology of [[cereal]]s and [[Monocotyledon|monocots]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Haberer |first1=Georg |last2=Mayer |first2=Klaus F.X. |last3=Spannagl |first3=Manuel |date=2016-04-01 |title=The big five of the monocot genomes |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1369526616300048 |journal=Current Opinion in Plant Biology |series=SI: 30: Genome studies and molecular genetics |volume=30 |pages=33–40 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2016.01.004 |pmid=26866569 |bibcode=2016COPB...30...33H |issn=1369-5266}}</ref>


== Botany ==
== Description ==


The species has an erect and stout or slender stalk stem that grows {{cvt|80|-|120|cm|round=5}} tall, with a smooth surface. The leaf is lanceolate, {{cvt|15|-|30|cm|frac=8}} long, and grows from a [[ligule]] {{cvt|10|-|20|mm|frac=8}} long.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Catindig |first1=J.L.A. |last2=Lubigan |first2=R.T. |last3=Johnson |first3=D. |date=n.d. |title=Oryza sativa |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/training/fact-sheets/item/oryza-sativa |website=Rice Knowledge Bank |publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |access-date=29 June 2023}}</ref>
''O. sativa'' has an erect stalk stem that grows {{cvt|80|-|120|cm|round=5}} tall, with a smooth surface. The leaf is lanceolate, {{cvt|15|-|30|cm|frac=8}} long, and grows from a [[ligule]] {{cvt|10|-|20|mm|frac=8}} long.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Catindig |first1=J.L.A. |last2=Lubigan |first2=R.T. |last3=Johnson |first3=D. |date=n.d. |title=Oryza sativa |url=http://www.knowledgebank.irri.org/training/fact-sheets/item/oryza-sativa |website=Rice Knowledge Bank |publisher=[[International Rice Research Institute]] |access-date=29 June 2023}}</ref>

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<gallery mode="packed">
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Image:Kerbau Jawa.jpg|[[Domestic buffalo|Water buffalo]] ploughing a rice paddyfield, [[Java]]
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File:Jumli Marshi Oryza sativa Rice.jpg|Jumli Marshi, brown rice from Nepal
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File:Niyamgiri rice.jpg|Traditional rice of [[Niyamgiri Jungle|Niyamgiri Hills]], India
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File:Medicinal Rice.jpg|From [[Chhattisgarh]]
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File:Koeh-232.jpg|
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File:RiceStemcs400x1.jpg|Stem [[Cross section (geometry)|cross section]] magnified 400 times
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</gallery>


== Classification ==
== Classification ==


{{See also|History of rice cultivation}}
{{see also|History of rice cultivation|List of rice varieties}}


⚫
The generic name ''[[wikt:oryza|Oryza]]''<ref name="oryza-MW">{{cite Merriam-Webster|oryza}}</ref> is a classical Latin word for rice, while the specific epithet ''[[sativum|sativa]]'' means "cultivated".<ref name="sativa-dict">{{cite Lexico|sativa}}</ref><ref>{{cite Merriam-Webster|sativa}}</ref>
⚫
''Oryza sativa'' contains two major subspecies: the sticky, short-grained [[Japonica rice |''japonica'' or ''sinica'']] variety, and the nonsticky, long-grained ''{{visible anchor |indica}}'' {{small |1={{bracket |[[:zh:籼稻 |zh]]}} {{bracket |[[:ja:インディカ米 |ja]]}}}} rice variety. ''Japonica'' was domesticated in the [[Yangtze Valley]] 9–6,000 years ago,<ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Purugganan |first1=Michael D. |last2=Fuller |first2=Dorian Q. |title=The nature of selection during plant domestication |journal=[[Nature (journal) |Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=457 |issue=7231 |year=2009 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/nature07895 |pages=843–848 |pmid=19212403 |bibcode=2009Natur.457..843P |s2cid=205216444 }}</ref> and its varieties can be cultivated in dry fields (it is cultivated mainly submerged in Japan), in temperate East Asia, upland areas of Southeast Asia, and high elevations in South Asia, while ''indica'' was domesticated around the [[Ganges]] 8,500-4,500 years ago,<ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009" /> and its varieties are mainly lowland rices, grown mostly submerged, throughout tropical Asia. Rice grain occurs in a variety of colors, including [[white rice |white]], [[brown rice |brown]], [[black rice |black]], [[purple rice |purple]], and [[red rice]]s.<ref>Oka (1988)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mohammadi Shad |first1=Z. |last2=Atungulu |first2=G. |title=Post-harvest kernel discoloration and fungi activity in long-grain hybrid, pureline and medium-grain rice cultivars as influenced by storage environment and antifungal treatment |journal=Journal of Stored Products Research |date=March 2019 |volume=81 |pages=91–99 |doi=10.1016/j.jspr.2019.02.002 |s2cid=92050510 |doi-access=free}}</ref>


⚫
''Oryza sativa'' contains two major subspecies: the sticky, short-grained [[Japonica rice|''japonica'' or ''sinica'']] variety, and the nonsticky, long-grained ''{{visible anchor |indica}}'' {{small |1={{bracket |[[:zh:籼稻|zh]]}} {{bracket |[[:ja:インディカ米|ja]]}}}} rice variety. ''Japonica'' was domesticated in the [[Yangtze Valley]] 9–6,000 years ago,<ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009">{{cite journal |last1=Purugganan |first1=Michael D. |last2=Fuller |first2=Dorian Q. |title=The nature of selection during plant domestication |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |publisher=[[Nature Research]] |volume=457 |issue=7231 |year=2009 |issn=0028-0836 |doi=10.1038/nature07895 |pages=843–848 |pmid=19212403 |bibcode=2009Natur.457..843P |s2cid=205216444 }}</ref> and its varieties can be cultivated in dry fields (it is cultivated mainly submerged in Japan), in temperate East Asia, upland areas of Southeast Asia, and high elevations in South Asia, while ''indica'' was domesticated around the [[Ganges]] 8,500–4,500 years ago,<ref name="Purugganan-Fuller-2009" /> and its varieties are mainly lowland rices, grown mostly submerged, throughout tropical Asia. Rice grain occurs in a variety of colors, including [[White rice|white]], [[Brown rice|brown]], [[Black rice|black]] (purple when cooked), and [[Red rice|red]].<ref>Oka (1988)</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Mohammadi Shad |first1=Z. |last2=Atungulu |first2=G. |title=Post-harvest kernel discoloration and fungi activity in long-grain hybrid, pureline and medium-grain rice cultivars as influenced by storage environment and antifungal treatment |journal=Journal of Stored Products Research |date=March 2019 |volume=81 |pages=91–99 |doi=10.1016/j.jspr.2019.02.002 |s2cid=92050510 |doi-access=free}}</ref>
⚫
A third subspecies, which is broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions, was identified based on morphology and initially called ''javanica'', but is now known as ''tropical japonica''. Examples of this variety include the medium-grain 'Tinawon' and 'Unoy' cultivars, which are grown in the high-elevation rice [[terrace (agriculture) |terrace]]s of the [[Cordillera Central (Luzon) |Cordillera Mountains]] of northern [[Luzon]], Philippines.<ref>CECAP, PhilRice and IIRR. 2000. "Highland Rice Production in the Philippine Cordillera."</ref>


⚫
A third subspecies, which is broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions, was identified based on morphology and initially called ''javanica'', but is now known as ''tropical japonica''. Examples of this variety include the medium-grain 'Tinawon' and 'Unoy' cultivars, which are grown in the high-elevation rice [[terrace (agriculture)|terrace]]s of the [[Cordillera Central (Luzon)|Cordillera Mountains]] of northern [[Luzon]], Philippines.<ref>CECAP, PhilRice and IIRR. 2000. "Highland Rice Production in the Philippine Cordillera."</ref>
Glaszmann (1987) used [[isozyme]]s to sort ''O. sativa'' into six groups: ''[[Japonica rice |japonica]]'', ''aromatic'', ''indica'', ''aus'', ''rayada'', and ''ashina''.<ref name="Glaszmann 1987">{{cite journal |last1=Glaszmann |first1=J. C. |title=Isozymes and classification of Asian rice varieties |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |date=May 1987 |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=21–30 |doi=10.1007/BF00290078 |pmid=24241451 |s2cid=22829122}}</ref>


Garris ''et al.'' (2004) used [[simple sequence repeat]]s to sort ''O. sativa'' into five groups: ''[[Japonica rice |temperate japonica]]'', ''tropical japonica'' and ''aromatic'' comprise the ''japonica'' varieties, while ''indica'' and ''aus'' comprise the ''indica'' varieties.<ref name="Garris Tai Coburn 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Garris |first1=Amanda J. |last2=Tai |first2=T. H. |last3=Coburn |first3=J. |last4=Kresovich |first4=S. |last5=McCouch |first5=S. |author5-link=Susan McCouch |year=2004 |title=Genetic structure and diversity in ''Oryza sativa'' L. |journal=[[Genetics (journal) |Genetics]] |pmid=15654106 |doi=10.1534/genetics.104.035642 |volume=169 |issue=3 |pages=1631–1638 |pmc=1449546}}</ref>
Glaszmann (1987) used [[isozyme]]s to sort ''O. sativa'' into six groups: ''[[Japonica rice|japonica]]'', ''aromatic'', ''indica'', ''aus'', ''rayada'', and ''ashina''.<ref name="Glaszmann 1987">{{cite journal |last1=Glaszmann |first1=J. C. |title=Isozymes and classification of Asian rice varieties |journal=Theoretical and Applied Genetics |date=May 1987 |volume=74 |issue=1 |pages=21–30 |doi=10.1007/BF00290078 |pmid=24241451 |s2cid=22829122}}</ref>


Garris ''et al.'' (2004) used [[simple sequence repeat]]s to sort ''O. sativa'' into five groups: ''[[Japonica rice|temperate japonica]]'', ''tropical japonica'' and ''aromatic'' comprise the ''japonica'' varieties, while ''indica'' and ''aus'' comprise the ''indica'' varieties.<ref name="Garris Tai Coburn 2004">{{cite journal |last1=Garris |first1=Amanda J. |last2=Tai |first2=T. H. |last3=Coburn |first3=J. |last4=Kresovich |first4=S. |last5=McCouch |first5=S. |author5-link=Susan McCouch |year=2004 |title=Genetic structure and diversity in ''Oryza sativa'' L. |journal=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]] |pmid=15654106 |doi=10.1534/genetics.104.035642 |volume=169 |issue=3 |pages=1631–1638 |pmc=1449546}}</ref> The Garris scheme has held up against newer analyses as of 2019,<ref name=civan>{{cite journal |last1=Civáň |first1=Peter |last2=Ali |first2=Sajid |last3=Batista-Navarro |first3=Riza |last4=Drosou |first4=Konstantina |last5=Ihejieto |first5=Chioma |last6=Chakraborty |first6=Debarati |last7=Ray |first7=Avik |last8=Gladieux |first8=Pierre |last9=Brown |first9=Terence A |title=Origin of the Aromatic Group of Cultivated Rice ( Oryza sativa L.) Traced to the Indian Subcontinent |journal=Genome Biology and Evolution |date=2019-03-01 |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=832–843 |doi=10.1093/gbe/evz039|pmid=30793171 |pmc=6427689 }}</ref> though one 2014 article argues that ''rayada'' is distinct enough to be its own group under ''japonica''.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=C-H |last2=Zheng |first2=X-M |last3=Xu |first3=Q |last4=Yuan |first4=X-P |last5=Huang |first5=L |last6=Zhou |first6=H-F |last7=Wei |first7=X-H |last8=Ge |first8=S |title=Genetic diversity and classification of Oryza sativa with emphasis on Chinese rice germplasm |journal=Heredity |date=May 2014 |volume=112 |issue=5 |pages=489–496 |doi=10.1038/hdy.2013.130|pmid=24326293 |pmc=3998783 }}</ref>
== Nomenclature and taxonomy ==
⚫
Rice has been cultivated since ancient times and ''[[wikt:oryza|oryza]]''<ref name="oryza-MW">{{cite Merriam-Webster|oryza}}</ref> is a classical Latin word for rice while ''[[sativum|sativa]]''<ref name="sativa-dict">
{{Unbulleted list citebundle
|{{cite Lexico|sativa}}
|{{cite Merriam-Webster|sativa}}
}}</ref> means "cultivated".


== Genetics ==
== Genetics ==
⚫
{{visible anchor|SPL14}}/{{visible anchor|LOC4345998}} is a gene that regulates the overall [[plant architecture|architecture]]/[[growth habit]] of the plant. Some of its [[epiallele]]s increase rice yield.<ref name="Stange-et-al-2021">{{cite journal | last1=Stange | first1=Madlen | last2=Barrett | first2=Rowan D. H. | last3=Hendry | first3=Andrew P. | title=The importance of genomic variation for biodiversity, ecosystems and people | journal=[[Nature Reviews Genetics]] | publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] | volume=22 | issue=2 | date=February 2021 | issn=1471-0056 | doi=10.1038/s41576-020-00288-7 | pages=89–105 | pmid=33067582 | s2cid=223559538|id=MS [[ORCID]] [http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4559-2535 0000-0002-4559-2535]). (RDHB [[ORCID]] [http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3044-2531 0000-0003-3044-2531])}}</ref> An accurate and usable [[Simple Sequence Repeat]] marker set was developed and used to generate a [[genetic map|high-density map]].<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" /> A multiplex [[high-throughput marker assisted selection]] system has been developed but as with other crop HTMAS systems has proven difficult to customize, costly (both directly and for the equipment), and inflexible.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017">{{cite journal|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|last1=Rasheed | first1=Awais | last2=Hao | first2=Yuanfeng | last3=Xia | first3=Xianchun | last4=Khan | first4=Awais | last5=Xu | first5=Yunbi | last6=Varshney | first6=Rajeev K. | last7=He | first7=Zhonghu | title=Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives | journal=[[Molecular Plant]]|id=[[Chinese Academy of Sciences]]+Chinese Society for Plant Biology+[[Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences]]|volume=10|issue=8|year=2017 | issn=1674-2052 | doi=10.1016/j.molp.2017.06.008 | pages=1047–1064 | s2cid=33780984 | pmid=28669791| doi-access=free }}</ref> Other [[molecular breeding]] tools have produced [[rice blast]] resistant cultivars.<ref name="Miah-et-al-2012">{{cite journal | last1=Miah | first1=G. | last2=Rafii | first2=M. Y. | last3=Ismail | first3=M. R. | last4=Puteh | first4=A. B. | last5=Rahim | first5=H. A. | last6=Asfaliza | first6=R. | last7=Latif | first7=M. A. | title=Blast resistance in rice: a review of conventional breeding to molecular approaches | journal=[[Molecular Biology Reports]] | publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] | volume=40 | issue=3 | date=2012-11-27 | issn=0301-4851 | doi=10.1007/s11033-012-2318-0 | pages=2369–2388| pmid=23184051 | s2cid=8922855 | url=http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/29230/1/29230.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Rao-et-al-2014">{{cite journal | last1=Rao | first1=Yuchun | last2=Li | first2=Yuanyuan | last3=Qian | first3=Qian | title=Recent progress on molecular breeding of rice in China | journal=[[Plant Cell Reports]] | publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] | volume=33 | issue=4 | date=2014-01-19 | issn=0721-7714 | doi=10.1007/s00299-013-1551-x | pages=551–564| pmid=24442397 | pmc=3976512 }}</ref><ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" /> [[DNA microarray]] has been used to advance understanding of [[hybrid vigor]] in rice, [[QTL sequencing]] has been used to elucidate seedling vigor, and [[genome wide association study]] (GWAS) by [[whole genome sequencing]] (WGS) has been used to investigate various [[agronomic trait]]s.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" />


⚫
{{visible anchor|SPL14}}/{{visible anchor|LOC4345998}} is a gene that regulates the overall [[plant architecture|architecture]]/[[growth habit]] of the plant. Some of its [[epiallele]]s increase rice yield.<ref name="Stange-et-al-2021">{{cite journal |last1=Stange |first1=Madlen |last2=Barrett |first2=Rowan D. H. |last3=Hendry |first3=Andrew P. |title=The importance of genomic variation for biodiversity, ecosystems and people |journal=[[Nature Reviews Genetics]] |publisher=[[Nature Portfolio]] |volume=22 |issue=2 |date=February 2021 |issn=1471-0056 |doi=10.1038/s41576-020-00288-7 |pages=89–105 |pmid=33067582 |s2cid=223559538|id=MS [[ORCID]] [http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4559-2535 0000-0002-4559-2535]). (RDHB [[ORCID]] [http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3044-2531 0000-0003-3044-2531])}}</ref> An accurate and usable [[simple sequence repeat]] marker set was developed and used to generate a [[genetic map|high-density map]].<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" /> A multiplex [[high-throughput marker assisted selection]] system has been developed but as with other crop HTMAS systems has proven difficult to customize, costly (both directly and for the equipment), and inflexible.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017">{{cite journal|publisher=[[Elsevier]]|last1=Rasheed |first1=Awais |last2=Hao |first2=Yuanfeng |last3=Xia |first3=Xianchun |last4=Khan |first4=Awais |last5=Xu |first5=Yunbi |last6=Varshney |first6=Rajeev K. |last7=He |first7=Zhonghu |title=Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives |journal=[[Molecular Plant]]|id=[[Chinese Academy of Sciences]]+Chinese Society for Plant Biology+[[Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences]]|volume=10|issue=8|year=2017 |issn=1674-2052 |doi=10.1016/j.molp.2017.06.008 |pages=1047–1064 |s2cid=33780984 |pmid=28669791|doi-access=free }}</ref> Other [[molecular breeding]] tools have produced [[rice blast]] resistant cultivars.<ref name="Miah-et-al-2012">{{cite journal |last1=Miah |first1=G. |last2=Rafii |first2=M. Y. |last3=Ismail |first3=M. R. |last4=Puteh |first4=A. B. |last5=Rahim |first5=H. A. |last6=Asfaliza |first6=R. |last7=Latif |first7=M. A. |title=Blast resistance in rice: a review of conventional breeding to molecular approaches |journal=[[Molecular Biology Reports]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |volume=40 |issue=3 |date=2012-11-27 |issn=0301-4851 |doi=10.1007/s11033-012-2318-0 |pages=2369–2388|pmid=23184051 |s2cid=8922855 |url=http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/29230/1/29230.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Rao-et-al-2014">{{cite journal |last1=Rao |first1=Yuchun |last2=Li |first2=Yuanyuan |last3=Qian |first3=Qian |title=Recent progress on molecular breeding of rice in China |journal=[[Plant Cell Reports]] |publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media]] |volume=33 |issue=4 |date=2014-01-19 |issn=0721-7714 |doi=10.1007/s00299-013-1551-x |pages=551–564|pmid=24442397 |pmc=3976512 }}</ref><ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" /> [[DNA microarray]] has been used to advance understanding of [[hybrid vigor]] in rice, [[QTL sequencing]] has been used to elucidate seedling vigor, and [[genome wide association study]] (GWAS) by [[whole genome sequencing]] (WGS) has been used to investigate various [[agronomic trait]]s.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" />
Rice is one of the earliest uses and validation models for the semi-thermal asymmetric reverse PCR (STARP) method developed in 2016.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" />

Resistance to the rice blast fungus ''[[Magnaporthe grisea]]'' is provided by various [[Plant disease resistance gene|resistance gene]]s including ''{{visible anchor|Pi1}}'', ''{{visible anchor|Pi54}}'', and ''{{visible anchor|Pita}}''.<ref name="Mehta-et-al-2019" />

⚫
''O. sativa'' has a large number of [[insect resistance gene]]s specifically for the [[Brown planthopper]].<ref name="Wang-Han-2022">{{cite journal | last1=Wang | first1=Changsheng | last2=Han | first2=Bin | title=Twenty years of rice genomics research: From sequencing and functional genomics to quantitative genomics | journal=[[Molecular Plant]] | publisher=[[Cell Press]] | volume=15 | issue=4 | year=2022 | issn=1674-2052 | doi=10.1016/j.molp.2022.03.009 | pmid=35331914 | pages=593–619| s2cid=247603925 | doi-access=free }}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, 15 [[R gene]]s have been cloned and characterized.<ref name="Wang-Han-2022" />


In total, 641 [[copy number variation]]s are known.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" /> [[Exome capture]] often reveals new [[single nucleotide polymorphism]]s in rice, due to its large genome and high degree of DNA repetition.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" />
In total, 641 [[copy number variation]]s are known.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" /> [[Exome capture]] often reveals new [[single nucleotide polymorphism]]s in rice, due to its large genome and high degree of DNA repetition.<ref name="Rasheed-et-al-2017" />


Resistance to the rice blast fungus ''[[Magnaporthe grisea]]'' is provided by various [[Plant disease resistance gene|resistance gene]]s including ''{{visible anchor|Pi1}}'', ''{{visible anchor|Pi54}}'', and ''{{visible anchor|Pita}}''.<ref name="Mehta-et-al-2019">{{cite book |editor-last=Wani |editor-first=Shabir Hussain |title=Disease Resistance in Crop Plants: Molecular, Genetic and Genomic Perspectives |publisher=[[Springer Publishing|Springer]] |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-030-20727-4 |oclc=1110184027 |pages=83–112/xii+307 |chapter=5 Rice, Marker-Assisted Breeding, and Disease Resistance |last1=Mehta |first1=Sahil |last2=Singh |first2=Baljinder |last3=Dhakate |first3=Priyanka |last4=Rahman |first4=Mehzabin |last5=Islam |first5=Muhammad Aminul}}</ref> ''O. sativa'' uses the plant hormones [[abscisic acid]] and [[salicylic acid]] to regulate immune responses. Salicylic acid broadly stimulates, and abscisic acid suppresses, immunity to ''M. grisea''; success depends on the balance between their levels.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pieterse |first1=Corné M.J. |last2=Van der Does |first2=Dieuwertje |last3=Zamioudis |first3=Christos |last4=Leon-Reyes |first4=Antonio |last5=Van Wees |first5=Saskia C.M. |title=Hormonal Modulation of Plant Immunity |journal=[[Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=28 |issue=1 |date=2012-11-10 |issn=1081-0706 |doi=10.1146/annurev-cellbio-092910-154055 |pages=489–521 |s2cid=18180536 |pmid=22559264|hdl=1874/274421 |url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/274421 |ref=none}}
The plant hormones [[abscisic acid]] and [[salicylic acid]] are employed by ''O. sativa'' for regulation of immune responses.<ref name="Jiang-et-al-2010-bundle">
⚫
|{{cite journal|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |last1=Atkinson |first1=Nicky J. |last2=Urwin |first2=Peter E. |title=The interaction of plant biotic and abiotic stresses: from genes to the field |journal=[[Journal of Experimental Botany]] |volume=63 |issue=10 |date=2012-03-30 |issn=0022-0957 |doi=10.1093/jxb/ers100 |pages=3523–3543 |s2cid=205195661 |pmid=22467407|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Wende |last2=Liu |first2=Jinling |last3=Triplett |first3=Lindsay |last4=Leach |first4=Jan E. |last5=Wang |first5=Guo-Liang |title=Novel Insights into Rice Innate Immunity Against Bacterial and Fungal Pathogens |journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] |publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] |volume=52 |issue=1 |date=2014-08-04 |issn=0066-4286 |doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-045926 |pages=213–241 |s2cid=9244874 |pmid=21380629}}</ref>
{{Unbulleted list citebundle
|{{cite journal | last1=Pieterse | first1=Corné M.J. | last2=Van der Does | first2=Dieuwertje | last3=Zamioudis | first3=Christos | last4=Leon-Reyes | first4=Antonio | last5=Van Wees | first5=Saskia C.M. | title=Hormonal Modulation of Plant Immunity | journal=[[Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=28 | issue=1 | date=2012-11-10 | issn=1081-0706 | doi=10.1146/annurev-cellbio-092910-154055 | pages=489–521 | s2cid=18180536 | pmid=22559264| hdl=1874/274421 | url=https://dspace.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/274421 }}
|{{cite journal|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |last1=Atkinson | first1=Nicky J. | last2=Urwin | first2=Peter E. | title=The interaction of plant biotic and abiotic stresses: from genes to the field | journal=[[Journal of Experimental Botany]] | volume=63 | issue=10 | date=2012-03-30 | issn=0022-0957 | doi=10.1093/jxb/ers100 | pages=3523–3543 | s2cid=205195661 | pmid=22467407| doi-access=free }}
⚫
|{{cite journal | last1=Liu | first1=Wende | last2=Liu | first2=Jinling | last3=Triplett | first3=Lindsay | last4=Leach | first4=Jan E. | last5=Wang | first5=Guo-Liang | title=Novel Insights into Rice Innate Immunity Against Bacterial and Fungal Pathogens | journal=[[Annual Review of Phytopathology]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=52 | issue=1 | date=2014-08-04 | issn=0066-4286 | doi=10.1146/annurev-phyto-102313-045926 | pages=213–241 | s2cid=9244874 | pmid=21380629}}
}}</ref> Salicylic acid broadly stimulate and abscisic acid suppresses immunity to the rice blast fungus ''M. grisea'', and success depends on the balance between their levels.<ref name="Jiang-et-al-2010-bundle" />


⚫
''O. sativa'' has a large number of [[insect resistance gene]]s specifically for the [[brown planthopper]].<ref name="Wang-Han-2022">{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Changsheng |last2=Han |first2=Bin |title=Twenty years of rice genomics research: From sequencing and functional genomics to quantitative genomics |journal=[[Molecular Plant]] |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=15 |issue=4 |year=2022 |issn=1674-2052 |doi=10.1016/j.molp.2022.03.009 |pmid=35331914 |pages=593–619|s2cid=247603925 |doi-access=free }}</ref> {{As of|2022}}, 15 [[R gene]]s have been cloned and characterized.<ref name="Wang-Han-2022" />
⚫
== Breeding ==
{{hatnote|This section is an excerpt from [[Rice breeding]]}}
{{excerpt|Rice breeding|Ecotypes and cultivars|paragraphs=1,2|references=no|hat=no}}


⚫
== See also ==
A triple [[introgression]] of [[plant disease resistance gene|resistance genes]] against ''[[Magnaporthe grisea]]''—and actual [[field resistance]]—have been developed.<ref name = "Mehta-et-al-2019" /> This is a [[marker-assisted backcross breeding|marker-assisted backcross]] of the genes ''[[Pi1]]'', ''[[Pi54]]'', and ''[[Pita (gene)|Pita]]'' into an [[aromatic rice|aromatic cultivar]] using [[SSR marker|SSR-]] and [[STS marker|STS-]]markers.<ref name = "Mehta-et-al-2019">{{cite book | editor-last = Wani | editor-first = Shabir Hussain | title = Disease Resistance in Crop Plants : Molecular, Genetic and Genomic Perspectives | publisher = [[Springer Publishing|Springer]] | publication-place = [[Cham, Switzerland]] | year = 2019 | isbn = 978-3-030-20727-4 | oclc = 1110184027 | pages = 83–112/xii+307 | chapter = 5 Rice, Marker-Assisted Breeding, and Disease Resistance | last1 = Mehta | first1 = Sahil | last2 = Singh | first2 = Baljinder | last3 = Dhakate | first3 = Priyanka | last4 = Rahman | first4 = Mehzabin | last5 = Islam | first5 = Muhammad Aminul}}</ref> ''{{ Visible anchor | Pi21 }}'' is a gene that confers broad-spectrum non-race-specific rice blast resistance against several strains.<ref name = "Exploiting" >
{{ Cite journal
| issue = 1
| date = 2020
| volume = 71
| publisher = [[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]]
| first5 = Guo-Liang
| first4 = Zuhua
| first3 = Yuese
| first2 = Yiwen
| first1 = Wei
| last5 = Wang
| last4 = He
| last3 = Ning
| last2 = Deng
| last1 = Li
| pages = 575–603
| journal = [[Annual Review of Plant Biology]]
| issn = 1543-5008
| s2cid = 214600762
| pmid = 32197052
| doi = 10.1146/annurev-arplant-010720-022215
| title = Exploiting Broad-Spectrum Disease Resistance in Crops: From Molecular Dissection to Breeding
| doi-access = free
}}
</ref>


== Gallery ==
⚫
<gallery mode="packed">
⚫
Image:Kerbau Jawa.jpg|[[Domestic buffalo|Water buffalo]] ploughing, [[Java]]
⚫
File:Jumli Marshi Oryza sativa Rice.jpg|Jumli Marshi, brown rice from Nepal
⚫
File:Niyamgiri rice.jpg|Traditional rice of [[Niyamgiri Jungle|Niyamgiri Hills]], India
⚫
File:Medicinal Rice.jpg|From [[Chhattisgarh]]
⚫
File:Koeh-232.jpg|
⚫
File:RiceStemcs400x1.jpg|Stem [[Cross section (geometry)|cross section]] magnified 400 times
⚫
</gallery>

==See also ==
* [[Black rice]]
* [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia]]
* [[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia]]
* [[International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants]]
* [[International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants]]
* [[Japonica rice]]
* [[Maratelli]] rice
* ''[[Oryza glaberrima|O. glaberrima]]'' (African rice)
* [[Traceability of genetically modified organisms]]
* [[Traceability of genetically modified organisms]]


== References ==
== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}


{{reflist|30em}}
⚫
==External links==

⚫
{{Wikispecies|Oryza sativa}}
⚫
== External links ==
⚫
{{Commons category|Oryza sativa}}

⚫
* {{Wikispecies-inline|Oryza sativa}}
⚫
* {{Commonscat-inline|Oryza sativa}}


{{Rice}}
{{Rice}}

Latest revision as of 11:27, 16 November 2024

Oryza sativa
Mature seed heads
Inflorescence
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Kingdom: Plantae
Clade: Tracheophytes
Clade: Angiosperms
Clade: Monocots
Clade: Commelinids
Order: Poales
Family: Poaceae
Genus: Oryza
Species:
O. sativa
Binomial name
Oryza sativa
Synonyms[1]
List
    • Oryza aristata Blanco
    • Oryza communissima Lour.
    • Oryza denudata (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza elongata (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza formosana Masam. & Suzuki
    • Oryza glutinosa Lour.
    • Oryza marginata (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza montana Lour.
    • Oryza mutica Steud.
    • Oryza palustris Salisb.
    • Oryza parviflora P.Beauv.
    • Oryza perennis Moench
    • Oryza plena (Prain) N.P.Chowdhury
    • Oryza praecox Lour.
    • Oryza pubescens (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza pumila Steud.
    • Oryza repens Buch.-Ham. ex Steud.
    • Oryza rubribarbis (Desv.) Steud.
    • Oryza sativa subsp. indica Shig.Kato
    • Oryza sativa subsp. japonica Shig.Kato
    • Oryza segetalis Russell ex Steud.

Oryza sativa, having the common name Asian cultivated rice,[2] is the much more common of the two rice species cultivated as a cereal, the other species being O. glaberrima, African rice. It was first domesticated in the Yangtze River basin in China 13,500 to 8,200 years ago.[3][4][5][6]

Oryza sativa belongs to the genus Oryza and the BOP clade in the grass family Poaceae. With a genome consisting of 430 Mbp across 12 chromosomes, it is renowned for being easy to genetically modify and is a model organism for the study of the biology of cereals and monocots.[7]

Description

[edit]

O. sativa has an erect stalk stem that grows 80–120 cm (30–45 in) tall, with a smooth surface. The leaf is lanceolate, 15–30 cm (5+7⁄8–11+3⁄4 in) long, and grows from a ligule 10–20 mm (3⁄8–3⁄4 in) long.[8]

Classification

[edit]
See also: History of rice cultivation and List of rice varieties

The generic name Oryza[9] is a classical Latin word for rice, while the specific epithet sativa means "cultivated".[10][11]

Oryza sativa contains two major subspecies: the sticky, short-grained japonica or sinica variety, and the nonsticky, long-grained indica [zh] [ja] rice variety. Japonica was domesticated in the Yangtze Valley 9–6,000 years ago,[12] and its varieties can be cultivated in dry fields (it is cultivated mainly submerged in Japan), in temperate East Asia, upland areas of Southeast Asia, and high elevations in South Asia, while indica was domesticated around the Ganges 8,500–4,500 years ago,[12] and its varieties are mainly lowland rices, grown mostly submerged, throughout tropical Asia. Rice grain occurs in a variety of colors, including white, brown, black (purple when cooked), and red.[13][14]

A third subspecies, which is broad-grained and thrives under tropical conditions, was identified based on morphology and initially called javanica, but is now known as tropical japonica. Examples of this variety include the medium-grain 'Tinawon' and 'Unoy' cultivars, which are grown in the high-elevation rice terraces of the Cordillera Mountains of northern Luzon, Philippines.[15]

Glaszmann (1987) used isozymes to sort O. sativa into six groups: japonica, aromatic, indica, aus, rayada, and ashina.[16]

Garris et al. (2004) used simple sequence repeats to sort O. sativa into five groups: temperate japonica, tropical japonica and aromatic comprise the japonica varieties, while indica and aus comprise the indica varieties.[17] The Garris scheme has held up against newer analyses as of 2019,[18] though one 2014 article argues that rayada is distinct enough to be its own group under japonica.[19]

Genetics

[edit]

SPL14/LOC4345998 is a gene that regulates the overall architecture/growth habit of the plant. Some of its epialleles increase rice yield.[20] An accurate and usable simple sequence repeat marker set was developed and used to generate a high-density map.[21] A multiplex high-throughput marker assisted selection system has been developed but as with other crop HTMAS systems has proven difficult to customize, costly (both directly and for the equipment), and inflexible.[21] Other molecular breeding tools have produced rice blast resistant cultivars.[22][23][21] DNA microarray has been used to advance understanding of hybrid vigor in rice, QTL sequencing has been used to elucidate seedling vigor, and genome wide association study (GWAS) by whole genome sequencing (WGS) has been used to investigate various agronomic traits.[21]

In total, 641 copy number variations are known.[21] Exome capture often reveals new single nucleotide polymorphisms in rice, due to its large genome and high degree of DNA repetition.[21]

Resistance to the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe grisea is provided by various resistance genes including Pi1, Pi54, and Pita.[24] O. sativa uses the plant hormones abscisic acid and salicylic acid to regulate immune responses. Salicylic acid broadly stimulates, and abscisic acid suppresses, immunity to M. grisea; success depends on the balance between their levels.[25][26]

O. sativa has a large number of insect resistance genes specifically for the brown planthopper.[27] As of 2022, 15 R genes have been cloned and characterized.[27]

See also

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Oryza sativa L." Plants of the World Online. Board of Trustees of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2017. Retrieved December 21, 2020.
  2. ^ "Oryza sativa (Asian cultivated rice)". National Library of Medicine. Retrieved July 24, 2024.
  3. ^ Normile, Dennis (1997). "Yangtze seen as earliest rice site". Science. 275 (5298): 309–310. doi:10.1126/science.275.5298.309. S2CID 140691699.
  4. ^ Vaughan, D.A.; Lu, B.; Tomooka, N. (2008). "The evolving story of rice evolution". Plant Science. 174 (4): 394–408. Bibcode:2008PlnSc.174..394V. doi:10.1016/j.plantsci.2008.01.016.
  5. ^ Harris, David R. (1996). The Origins and Spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia. Psychology Press. p. 565. ISBN 978-1-85728-538-3.
  6. ^ Zhang, Jianping; Lu, Houyuan; Gu, Wanfa; Wu, Naiqin; Zhou, Kunshu; Hu, Yayi; Xin, Yingjun; Wang, Can; Kashkush, Khalil (December 17, 2012). "Early Mixed Farming of Millet and Rice 7800 Years Ago in the Middle Yellow River Region, China". PLOS ONE. 7 (12): e52146. Bibcode:2012PLoSO...752146Z. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0052146. PMC 3524165. PMID 23284907.
  7. ^ Haberer, Georg; Mayer, Klaus F.X.; Spannagl, Manuel (April 1, 2016). "The big five of the monocot genomes". Current Opinion in Plant Biology. SI: 30: Genome studies and molecular genetics. 30: 33–40. Bibcode:2016COPB...30...33H. doi:10.1016/j.pbi.2016.01.004. ISSN 1369-5266. PMID 26866569.
  8. ^ Catindig, J.L.A.; Lubigan, R.T.; Johnson, D. (n.d.). "Oryza sativa". Rice Knowledge Bank. International Rice Research Institute. Retrieved June 29, 2023.
  9. ^ "oryza". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  10. ^ "sativa". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. n.d.
  11. ^ "sativa". Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary. Merriam-Webster.
  12. ^ a b Purugganan, Michael D.; Fuller, Dorian Q. (2009). "The nature of selection during plant domestication". Nature. 457 (7231). Nature Research: 843–848. Bibcode:2009Natur.457..843P. doi:10.1038/nature07895. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 19212403. S2CID 205216444.
  13. ^ Oka (1988)
  14. ^ Mohammadi Shad, Z.; Atungulu, G. (March 2019). "Post-harvest kernel discoloration and fungi activity in long-grain hybrid, pureline and medium-grain rice cultivars as influenced by storage environment and antifungal treatment". Journal of Stored Products Research. 81: 91–99. doi:10.1016/j.jspr.2019.02.002. S2CID 92050510.
  15. ^ CECAP, PhilRice and IIRR. 2000. "Highland Rice Production in the Philippine Cordillera."
  16. ^ Glaszmann, J. C. (May 1987). "Isozymes and classification of Asian rice varieties". Theoretical and Applied Genetics. 74 (1): 21–30. doi:10.1007/BF00290078. PMID 24241451. S2CID 22829122.
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