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{{Short description|Helicopter with four rotors}} |
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{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2022}} |
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{{Use American English|date=February 2022}} |
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[[File:Quadcopter camera drone in flight.jpg|thumb|A [[DJI (company)|DJI]] [[Phantom (UAV)|Phantom]] quadcopter [[unmanned aerial vehicle|drone]] in flight]] |
[[File:Quadcopter camera drone in flight.jpg|thumb|A [[DJI (company)|DJI]] [[Phantom (UAV)|Phantom]] quadcopter [[unmanned aerial vehicle|drone]] in flight]] |
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[[File:Racing Drone.jpg|thumb|Typical [[drone racing|racing quadcopter]] with [[Carbon fibers|carbon fiber]] frame and [[First-person view (radio control)|FPV]] camera]] |
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A '''quadcopter''', also called '''quadrocopter''', or '''quadrotor'''<ref name="dasc04"/> is a type of [[helicopter]] or [[multicopter]] that has four [[Helicopter rotor|rotors]].<ref name="hoffmanAugust2007"/> |
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Although quadrotor helicopters and [[convertiplane]]s have long been flown experimentally, the configuration remained a curiosity until the arrival of the modern [[unmanned aerial vehicle]] or drone. The small size and low [[inertia]] of drones allows use of a particularly simple flight control system, which has greatly increased the practicality of the small quadrotor in this application. |
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A '''quadcopter''' or '''quadrotor'''<ref name="dasc04"/> is a type of [[helicopter]] with four [[Helicopter rotor|rotors]].<ref name="hoffmanAugust2007"/> |
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==Design principles== |
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Quadcopters generally have two rotors spinning [[clockwise]] (CW) and two [[counterclockwise]] (CCW). Flight control is provided by independent variation of the speed and hence lift and torque of each rotor. Pitch and roll are controlled by varying the net [[centre of thrust]], with yay controlled by varying the net [[torque]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Stafford |first=Jesse|url=http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/webproj/212_spring_2014/Clay_Allen/clay_allen/works.html |title=How a Quadcopter works | Clay Allen |publisher=University of Alaska, Fairbanks |date=Spring 2014 |accessdate=2015-01-20}}</ref> |
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Each rotor produces both [[lift (force)|lift]] and [[torque]] about its center of rotation, as well as [[drag force|drag]] opposite to the vehicle's direction of flight. |
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Quadcopters generally have two rotors spinning [[clockwise]] (CW) and two [[counterclockwise]] (CCW). Flight control is provided by independent variation of the speed and hence lift and torque of each rotor. Pitch and roll are controlled by varying the net [[centre of thrust]], with yaw controlled by varying the net [[torque]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Stafford |first=Jesse|url=http://ffden-2.phys.uaf.edu/webproj/212_spring_2014/Clay_Allen/clay_allen/works.html |title=How a Quadcopter works | Clay Allen |publisher=University of Alaska, Fairbanks |date=Spring 2014 |access-date=2015-01-20}}</ref> |
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Unlike conventional helicopters, quadrotors do not usually have cyclic pitch control, in which the angle of the blades varies dynamically as they turn around the rotor hub. In the early days of flight, quadcopters (then referred to either as 'quadrotors' or simply as 'helicopters') were seen as a possible solution to some of the persistent problems in vertical flight. Torque-induced control issues (as well as efficiency issues originating from the [[tail rotor]], which generates no useful lift) can be eliminated by counter-rotation, and the relatively short blades are much easier to construct. A number of manned designs appeared in the 1920s and 1930s. These vehicles were among the first successful heavier-than-air [[VTOL|vertical take off and landing (VTOL)]] vehicles.<ref name="leishman00">{{cite book | last = Leishman | first = J.G. | title = Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2000 | location = New York, NY | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nMV-TkaX-9cC&pg=PA688&lpg=PA688&dq=Leishman,+J.G.+%282000%29.+Principles+of+Helicopter+Aerodynamics.#v=snippet| isbn = 9780521858601 }}</ref> However, early prototypes suffered from poor performance,<ref name="leishman00" /> and latter prototypes required too much pilot work load, due to poor stability augmentation<ref name="anderson81">{{Cite journal | last = Anderson | first = S.B. | title = Historical Overview of V/STOL Aircraft Technology | journal = NASA Technical Memorandum 81280 | year = 1997 | url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20020051099&hterms=81280&qs=N%3D0%26Ntk%3DAll%26Ntt%3D81280%26Ntx%3Dmode%2520matchallpartial%26Nm%3D17%7CCollection%7CNACA%7C%7C123%7CCollection%7CNASA%2520STI}}</ref> and limited control authority. |
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Unlike conventional helicopters, quadcopters do not usually have cyclic pitch control, in which the angle of the blades varies dynamically as they turn around the rotor hub. In the early days of flight, quadcopters (then referred to either as ''quadrotors'' or simply as ''helicopters'') were seen as a possible solution to some of the persistent problems in vertical flight. Torque-induced control issues (as well as efficiency issues originating from the [[tail rotor]], which generates no useful lift) can be eliminated by counter-rotation, and the relatively short blades are much easier to construct. A number of manned designs appeared in the 1920s and 1930s. These vehicles were among the first successful heavier-than-air [[VTOL|vertical take off and landing (VTOL)]] vehicles.<ref name="leishman00">{{cite book | last = Leishman | first = J.G. | title = Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2000 | location = New York, NY | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=nMV-TkaX-9cC&q=Leishman,+J.G.+%282000%29.+Principles+of+Helicopter+Aerodynamics.&pg=PA688| isbn = 9780521858601 }}</ref> However, early prototypes suffered from poor performance,<ref name="leishman00" /> and latter prototypes required too much pilot work load, due to poor stability augmentation<ref name="anderson81">{{Cite journal | last = Anderson | first = S.B. | title = Historical Overview of V/STOL Aircraft Technology | journal = NASA Technical Memorandum 81280 | year = 1997 | url = https://ntrs.nasa.gov/search.jsp?R=20020051099&hterms=81280&qs=N%3D0%26Ntk%3DAll%26Ntt%3D81280%26Ntx%3Dmode%2520matchallpartial%26Nm%3D17%7CCollection%7CNACA%7C%7C123%7CCollection%7CNASA%2520STI}}</ref> and limited control authority. |
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Around 2005 to 2010, advances in electronics allowed the production of cheap lightweight flight controllers, [[accelerometer]]s ([[Inertial measurement unit|IMU]]), [[global positioning systems|global positioning system]] and cameras. This resulted in the quadcopter configuration becoming popular for small [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s. With their small size and maneuverability, these quadcopters can be flown indoors as well as outdoors.<ref name="dasc04">{{cite conference | first = G.M. | last = Hoffmann |author2=Rajnarayan, D.G. |author3=Waslander, S.L. |author4=Dostal, D. |author5=Jang, J.S. |author6=Tomlin, C.J. | title = The Stanford Testbed of Autonomous Rotorcraft for Multi Agent Control (STARMAC) | booktitle = In the Proceedings of the 23rd Digital Avionics System Conference | pages = 12.E.4/1–10 | date = November 2004 | location = Salt Lake City, UT | doi = 10.1109/DASC.2004.1390847 }}</ref><ref name="büchi11">{{cite book| last = Büchi | first = Roland | title = Fascination Quadrocopter | year = 2011 | location = |isbn=978-3-8423-6731-9 }}</ref> |
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===Torque=== |
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At a small size, quadcopters are cheaper and more durable than conventional helicopters due to their mechanical simplicity.<ref name="acra2006">{{cite conference | first = P. | last = Pounds |author2=Mahony, R. |author3=Corke, P. | title = Modelling and Control of a Quad-Rotor Robot | booktitle = In the Proceedings of the Australasian Conference on Robotics and Automation | date = December 2006 | location = Auckland, New Zealand | url = http://www.araa.asn.au/acra/acra2006/papers/paper_5_26.pdf }}</ref> Their smaller blades are also advantageous because they possess less kinetic energy, reducing their ability to cause damage. For small-scale quadcopters, this makes the vehicles safer for close interaction. It is also possible to fit quadcopters with guards that enclose the rotors, further reducing the potential for damage.<ref name="hoffmanAugust2007">{{cite conference | first = G. | last = Hoffman | author2 = Huang, H. | author3 = Waslander, S.L. | author4 = Tomlin, C.J. | title = Quadrotor Helicopter Flight Dynamics and Control: Theory and Experiment | booktitle = In the Conference of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics | date = 20–23 August 2007 | location = Hilton Head, South Carolina | url = http://hoffmann.stanford.edu/papers/Quadrotor_Dynamics_GNC07.pdf | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20100813162324/http://hoffmann.stanford.edu/papers/Quadrotor_Dynamics_GNC07.pdf | archivedate = 13 August 2010 }}</ref> However, as size increases, fixed propeller quadcopters develop disadvantages relative to conventional helicopters. Increasing blade size increases their momentum. This means that changes in blade speed take longer, which negatively impacts control. Helicopters do not experience this problem as increasing the size of the rotor disk does not significantly impact the ability to control blade pitch. |
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If all four rotors are spinning at the same [[angular velocity]], with two rotating clockwise and two counterclockwise, the net torque about the [[Aircraft principal axes|yaw axis]] is zero, which means there is no need for a tail rotor as on conventional helicopters. Yaw is induced by mismatching the balance in aerodynamic torques (i.e., by offsetting the cumulative thrust commands between the counter-rotating blade pairs).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cog.yonsei.ac.kr/quad/quad.htm|title=Quadrotor|access-date=29 December 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227193853/http://cog.yonsei.ac.kr/quad/quad.htm|archive-date=27 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hoverbear.org/2015/05/27/quadcopters-yaw/|title=Quadcopters: Yaw|publisher=hoverbear.org|author=Andrew Hobden|access-date=3 April 2017}}</ref> |
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<gallery> |
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Due to their ease of construction and control, quadcopter aircraft are frequently used as amateur [[model aircraft]] projects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.makezine.com/archive/2010/01/how-to-quadrocopter-based-on-arduin.html|title=How-To: Quadrocopter based on Arduino|work=MAKE|accessdate=29 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111211005108/http://blog.makezine.com/archive/2010/01/how-to-quadrocopter-based-on-arduin.html|archive-date=11 December 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ng.uavp.ch/moin/FrontPage|title=FrontPage - UAVP-NG - The Open Source Next Generation Multicopter|accessdate=29 December 2014}}</ref> |
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File:Quadrotor yaw torque.png|Schematic of reaction torques on each motor of a quadcopter aircraft, due to spinning rotors. Rotors 1 and 3 spin in one direction, while rotors 2 and 4 spin in the opposite direction, yielding opposing torques for control. |
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File:Quadrotorhover.svg|A quadrotor hovers or adjusts its altitude by applying equal thrust to all four rotors. |
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File:Quadrotoryaw.svg|A quadrotor adjusts its [[Yaw (rotation)|yaw]] by applying more thrust to rotors rotating in one direction. |
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File:Quadrotorpitch.svg|A quadrotor adjusts its pitch or roll by applying more thrust to one rotor (or two adjacent rotors) and less thrust to the diametrically opposite rotor. |
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</gallery> |
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===Vortex ring state=== |
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==History== |
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All quadcopters are subject to normal rotorcraft aerodynamics, including the [[vortex ring state]].{{citation needed|date=June 2020|reason=unreliable source removed}} |
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=== |
===Mechanical structure=== |
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The main mechanical components are a fuselage or frame, the four [[Helicopter rotor|rotor]]s (either fixed-[[Blade pitch|pitch]] or variable-pitch), and motors. For best performance and simplest control algorithms, the motors and propellers are equidistant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyvernupenn.blogspot.ca/2010/04/mechanical-design.html|title=Wyvern Quadrotor Helicopter|author=Uriah|access-date=29 December 2014|date=2010-04-13}}</ref> |
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; [[Breguet-Richet Gyroplane]] (1907) |
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:A four-rotor helicopter designed by [[Louis Breguet]]. This was the first rotary wing aircraft to lift itself off the ground, although only in tethered flight at an altitude of a few feet. In 1908 it was reported as having flown 'several times', although details are sparse.<ref>{{Cite book |
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|last=Young |
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|first=Warren R. |
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|title=The Helicopters |
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|work=The Epic of Flight |
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|location=Chicago |
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|publisher=Time-Life Books |
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|year=1982 |
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|isbn=978-0-8094-3350-6 |
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|page=[https://archive.org/details/helicopters00youn/page/28 28] |
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|url=https://archive.org/details/helicopters00youn/page/28 |
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}}</ref> |
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===Coaxial rotors=== |
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;Oehmichen No.2 (1920) |
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[[File:Onyxstar Fox-C8 XT xender 360.jpg|thumb|Quadcopter [[Coaxial rotors|coaxial]]{{snd}} OnyxStar FOX-C8 XT Observer from [[AltiGator]] ]] |
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:[[Etienne Oehmichen]] experimented with rotorcraft designs in the 1920s. Among the six designs he tried, his helicopter No.2 had four rotors and eight propellers, all driven by a single engine. The Oehmichen No.2 used a steel-tube frame, with two-bladed rotors at the ends of the four arms. The angle of these blades could be varied by warping. Five of the propellers, spinning in the horizontal plane, stabilized the machine laterally. Another propeller was mounted at the nose for steering. The remaining pair of propellers functioned as its forward propulsion. The aircraft exhibited a considerable degree of stability and increase in control-accuracy for its time, and made over a thousand test flights during the middle 1920s. By 1923 it was able to remain airborne for several minutes at a time, and on April 14, 1924 it established the first-ever FAI distance record for helicopters of {{convert|360|m|yd|abbr=on}}. It demonstrated the ability to complete a circular course<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1924/1924%20-%200047.html "A Successful French Helicopter" ]''Flight'' 24 January 1924 p47</ref> and later, it completed the first {{convert|1|km|mi}} closed-circuit flight by a rotorcraft. |
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In order to allow more power and stability at reduced weight, a quadcopter, like any other [[multirotor]] can employ a [[Coaxial rotors|coaxial rotor]] configuration. In this case, each arm has two motors running in opposite directions (one facing up and one facing down).{{citation needed|date=June 2020|reason=unreliable source removed}} |
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==Operations== |
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[[File:De Bothezat Quadrotor.jpg|thumb|[[de Bothezat helicopter]], 1923 photo]] |
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===Autonomous flight=== |
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The quadcopter configuration is relatively simple to program for autonomous flight. This has allowed experiments with complex swarming behaviour based on basic sensing of the adjacent drones.{{citation needed|date=June 2020|reason=not obvious why the quadcopter layout helped}} |
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===Endurance=== |
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;[[de Bothezat helicopter]] (1922) |
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The longest flight time achieved by a battery-powered quadcopter was 2 hours, 31 minutes and 30 seconds. The record was set by Ferdinand Kickinger of Germany in 2016.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ferdinand Kickinger|title=151min30s FPV with Copter|date=2016-04-30|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6AUd7K1lG6o |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211222/6AUd7K1lG6o |archive-date=2021-12-22 |url-status=live|access-date=2018-08-26}}{{cbignore}}</ref> In setting the record, Kickinger used low discharge-rate, high-capacity lithium-ion batteries and stripped the airframe of non-essential weight to reduce power draw and extend endurance.<ref>SPK Drones. [https://www.spkdrones.com/how-quadcopters-fly/ How Quadcopters Fly] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806230915/https://www.spkdrones.com/how-quadcopters-fly/ |date=6 August 2020 }}.</ref> |
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:[[George de Bothezat|Dr. George de Bothezat]] and Ivan Jerome developed this aircraft, with six-bladed rotors at the end of an X-shaped structure. Two small propellers with variable pitch were used for thrust and yaw control. The vehicle used collective pitch control. Built by the US Air Service, it made its first flight in October 1922. About 100 flights were made by the end of 1923. The highest it ever reached was about {{convert|5|m|ftin|abbr=on}}. Although demonstrating feasibility, it was underpowered, unresponsive, mechanically complex and susceptible to reliability problems. Pilot workload was too high during hover to attempt lateral motion. |
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Alternative power sources like hydrogen fuel cells and hybrid gas-electric generators have been used to dramatically extend endurance because of the increased energy density of both hydrogen and gasoline, respectively.<ref>McNabb, Miriam (February 2018). [https://dronelife.com/2018/02/22/us-drone-manufacturer-harris-aerial-launches-new-hybrid-gas-electric-drone/ US Manufacturer Harris Aerial Launches New Hybrid Gas Electric Drone]. ''Dronelife''</ref> |
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;[[Convertawings Model A Quadrotor]] (1956) |
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:This unique helicopter was intended to be the prototype for a line of much larger civil and military quadrotor helicopters. The design featured two engines driving four rotors through a system of v belts. No tail rotor was needed and control was obtained by varying the thrust between rotors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1956/1956%20-%201564.html|title=1956 - 1564 - Flight Archive|work=flightglobal.com|accessdate=13 March 2015}}</ref> Flown successfully many times in the mid-1950s, this helicopter proved the quadrotor design and it was also the first four-rotor helicopter to demonstrate successful forward flight. Due to a lack of orders for commercial or military versions however, the project was terminated. Convertawings proposed a Model E that would have a maximum weight of {{convert|42000|lb|t|abbr=on}} with a payload of {{convert|10900|lb|t|abbr=on}} over 300 miles and at up to {{convert|173|mph|abbr=on}}. The Hanson Elastic Articulated (EA) bearingless rotor grew out of work done in the early 1960s at Lockheed California by Thomas F. Hanson, who had previously worked at Convertawings on the quadrotor's rotor design and control system.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.google.com/patents/US3261407|title=Patent US3261407 - Helicopter rotor system|work=google.com|accessdate=13 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GgntoJiYek4C&pg=PA157&lpg=PA157&dq=Hanson+Elastic+Articulated+Rotor#v=onepage|title=The Seventh International Conference on Vibration Problems ICOVP 2005|accessdate=13 March 2015|isbn=9781402054013|last1=Inan|first1=Esin|last2=Kiris|first2=Ahmet|date=2007-01-20}}</ref> |
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[[File:VZ-7.jpg|thumb|right|Curtiss-Wright VZ-7]] |
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;[[Curtiss-Wright VZ-7]] (1958) |
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:The Curtiss-Wright VZ-7 was a [[VTOL]] aircraft designed by [[Curtiss-Wright]] in competition for the US Army Transport and Research Command "flying jeep". The VZ-7 was controlled by changing the thrust of each of the four ducted fan rotors. |
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==History== |
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===Pioneers=== |
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The [[Piasecki PA-97]] was an extreme example where four helicopter fuselages were combined with a lighter-than-air blimp in the 1980s. |
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The first heavier-than-air [[Aerodyne (aeronautics)|aerodyne]] to take off vertically was a four-rotor helicopter designed by [[Louis Breguet]]. It was tested only in tethered flight and to an altitude of a few feet. In 1908 it was reported as having flown 'several times', although details are sparse.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Young |first=Warren R. |title=The Helicopters |work=The Epic of Flight |location=Chicago |publisher=Time-Life Books |year=1982 |isbn=978-0-8094-3350-6 |page=[https://archive.org/details/helicopters00youn/page/28 28] |url=https://archive.org/details/helicopters00youn/page/28 }}</ref> |
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[[Etienne Oehmichen]] experimented with rotorcraft designs in the 1920s. Among the designs he tried was the Oehmichen No. 2, which employed four two-blade rotors and eight propellers, all driven by a single engine. The angle of the rotor blades could be varied by warping. Five of the propellers, spinning in the horizontal plane, stabilized the machine laterally. Another propeller was mounted at the nose for steering. The remaining pair of propellers functioned as its forward propulsion. The aircraft exhibited a considerable degree of stability and increase in control-accuracy for its time, and made over a thousand test flights during the middle 1920s. By 1923 it was able to remain airborne for several minutes at a time, and on April 14, 1924, it established the first-ever FAI distance record for helicopters of {{convert|360|m|yd|abbr=on}}. It demonstrated the ability to complete a circular course<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1924/1924%20-%200047.html "A Successful French Helicopter" ]''Flight'' 24 January 1924 p47</ref> and later, it completed the first {{convert|1|km|mi}} closed-circuit flight by a rotorcraft. |
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===Recent developments=== |
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In the last few decades, small-scale [[unmanned aerial vehicles]] have been used for many applications. The need for aircraft with greater maneuverability and hovering ability has led to a rise in quadcopter research. The four-rotor design allows quadcopters to be relatively simple in design yet highly reliable and maneuverable. Research is continuing to increase the abilities of quadcopters by making advances in multi-craft communication, environment exploration, and maneuverability. If these developing qualities can be combined, quadcopters would be capable of advanced autonomous missions that are currently not possible with other vehicles.<ref name="illumin">{{cite web|url=http://illumin.usc.edu/162/the-quadrotors-coming-of-age|title=Illumin - The Quadrotor's Coming of Age|accessdate=29 December 2014}}</ref> |
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[[File:De Bothezat Quadrotor.jpg|thumb|[[de Bothezat helicopter]], 1923 photo]] |
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Some current programs include: |
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[[George de Bothezat|Dr. George de Bothezat]] and Ivan Jerome developed the [[de Bothezat helicopter]], with six-bladed rotors at the end of an X-shaped structure. Two small propellers with variable pitch were used for thrust and yaw control. The vehicle used collective pitch control. Built by the [[United States Army Air Service]], it made its first flight in October 1922. About 100 flights were made by the end of 1923. The highest it ever reached was about {{convert|5|m|ftin|abbr=on}}. Although demonstrating feasibility, it was underpowered, unresponsive, mechanically complex and susceptible to reliability problems. Pilot workload was too high during hover to attempt lateral motion. |
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* The [[Bell Boeing Quad TiltRotor]] concept takes the fixed quadcopter concept further by combining it with the tilt rotor concept for a proposed C-130 sized military transport. |
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[[File:Ardrone-img5-front.jpg|thumb|right|Flying prototype of the [[Parrot AR.Drone]] ]] |
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[[File:Parrot AR.Drone 2.0 take-off, Nevada.jpg|thumb|[[Parrot AR.Drone]] 2.0 take-off, Nevada, 2012]] |
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* [[AeroQuad]] and [[ArduCopter]] are [[open-source hardware]] and software projects based on Arduino for the DIY construction of quadcopters.<ref name="AeroQuad">{{Cite news|url = http://www.slashgear.com/diy-quadrocopters-quaduino-ng-and-aeroquad-videos-1369771/|title = DIY Quadrocopters: Quaduino NG and AeroQuad [Videos]|accessdate = 4 February 2012|last = Davies|first = Chris|date = 13 January 2010| work = SlashGear}}</ref><ref name="Make Magazine">{{cite web|title=ArduCopter 3D Robotics Quadcopter|url=http://kits.makezine.com/2011/11/12/arducopter-3dr-quadcopter/|accessdate=May 24, 2012}}</ref> |
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* [[Nixie drone|Nixie]] is a small camera-equipped drone that can be worn as a wrist band.<ref name=Nixie-site>{{cite web|title=Official Nixie website|url=http://www.flynixie.com|publisher=Nixie|accessdate=8 October 2014}}</ref><ref name=TechCrunch-28Sep14>{{cite news|last1=Kumparak|first1=Greg|title=A wearable drone that launches off your wrist to take your selfie|url=https://techcrunch.com/2014/09/28/a-wearable-drone-that-launches-off-your-wrist-to-take-your-selfie|work=[[TechCrunch]]|accessdate=11 October 2014|date=28 September 2014}}</ref><ref name=Forbes-29Sep14>{{cite web|last1=Monckton|first1=Paul|title=Nixie, the wearable selfie drone|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/paulmonckton/2014/09/29/nixie-the-wearable-selfie-drone|publisher=[[Forbes]]: Life|accessdate=8 October 2014|date=29 September 2014}}</ref> |
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* [[Airbus]] is developing a battery-powered quadcopter to act as an urban air taxi, at first with a pilot but potentially autonomous in the future.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2017/10/05/airbus-on-track-to-fly-its-electric-aerial-taxi-in-2018/|title=Airbus on track to fly its electric aerial taxi in 2018}}</ref> |
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Several camera-drone projects have turned into high-profile commercial failures: |
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* [[Zano (drone)]]{{snd}} a high-profile [[Kickstarter]] project to build a quadcopter-camera drone, Zano failed after delivering only a small fraction of their orders in a partially nonfunctional state.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/biggest-kickstarter-and-indiegogo-scams/|title=Best laid plans of mobs and men: The 5 biggest crowdfunding failures of all time|date=28 July 2016|work=digitaltrends.com|accessdate=28 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://gizmodo.com/the-9-most-disgraceful-crowdfunding-failures-of-2015-1747957776|title=The 9 Most Disgraceful Crowdfunding Failures of 2015|first=Kate|last=Knibbs|work=gizmodo.com|accessdate=28 January 2017}}</ref> |
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* [[Lily Robotics, Inc.|Lily Camera]]{{snd}} a startup attempting to make a quadcopter-camera drone, sued by the San Francisco District Attorney after they closed down without fulfilling any of their pre-orders.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-38595473|title=Drone company Lily shuts down owing $34m|work=BBC News|date=12 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/much-hyped-lily-camera-drone-is-out-of-business/|title=Much-hyped Lily Camera Drone going out of business|work=cnet.com|accessdate=28 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/aarontilley/2017/01/13/lawsuit-killed-lily-robotics-drones/|title=How An Allegedly Fake Video Killed A Much-Hyped Drone Startup|first=Ryan|last=Mac|work=forbes.com|accessdate=28 January 2017}}</ref> |
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===Postwar era=== |
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In July 2015, a video was posted on [[YouTube]] of an airborne quadcopter firing a pistol four times in a wooded area, sparking regulatory concerns.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2015/jul/16/drone-firing-handgun-video-youtube|title=Drone firing handgun appears in video|author=Samuel Gibbs|newspaper=the Guardian|accessdate=20 July 2015|date=2015-07-16}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://thestack.com/drone-firing-gun-160715|title=A drone firing a gun: so this is what all the regulation is about|work=thestack.com|accessdate=20 July 2015}}</ref> |
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The [[Convertawings Model A Quadrotor]] was intended to be the prototype for a line of much larger civil and military helicopters. The design featured two engines driving four rotors through a system of v belts. No tail rotor was needed and control was obtained by varying the thrust between rotors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1956/1956%20-%201564.html|title=1956 - 1564 - Flight Archive|work=flightglobal.com|access-date=13 March 2015}}</ref> Flown many times from 1956, this helicopter proved the quadrotor design and it was also the first four-rotor helicopter to demonstrate successful forward flight. Due to a lack of orders for commercial or military versions however, the project was terminated. Convertawings proposed a Model E that would have a maximum weight of {{convert|42000|lb|t|abbr=on}} with a payload of {{convert|10900|lb|t|abbr=on}} over 300 miles and at up to {{convert|173|mph|abbr=on}}. The Hanson Elastic Articulated (EA) bearingless rotor grew out of work done in the early 1960s at Lockheed California by Thomas F. Hanson, who had previously worked at Convertawings on the quadrotor's rotor design and control system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US3261407|title=Patent US3261407 - Helicopter rotor system|work=google.com|access-date=13 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GgntoJiYek4C&q=Hanson+Elastic+Articulated+Rotor&pg=PA157|title=The Seventh International Conference on Vibration Problems ICOVP 2005|access-date=13 March 2015|isbn=9781402054013|last1=Inan|first1=Esin|last2=Kiris|first2=Ahmet|date=2007-01-20|publisher=Springer }}</ref> |
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The [[Gloster Aircraft Company|Gloster]] Crop Sprayer project of 1960 was an early example of a quadcopter drone. To be powered by a 105 hp Potez 4E air-cooled flat four-cylinder engine, its 20 gal payload was discharged through a 22 ft spray boom. Two operators carried homing beacons at opposite ends of the spray run, so that the quadcopter would always home in on a beacon and not overshoot. However, despite the much simplified design and operational requirements compared to a piloted machine, the parent company board refused to develop it and it remained a paper project.<ref>James, Derek N.; ''Gloster Aircraft Since 1917'', Putnam, 1971, p.413.</ref> |
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==Applications== |
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[[File:VZ-7.jpg|thumb|right|Curtiss-Wright VZ-7]] |
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{{See also|Unmanned aerial vehicle#Applications}} |
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[[File:Quadcopter landing at Head of the Charles.agr.jpg|thumb|A quadcopter being recovered after photographing the [[Head of the Charles]] regatta in [[Cambridge, Massachusetts]] ]] |
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The [[Curtiss-Wright VZ-7]] of 1958 was a [[VTOL]] aircraft designed by [[Curtiss-Wright]] in competition for the U.S. Army Transport and Research Command "flying jeep". The VZ-7 was controlled by changing the thrust of each of the four ducted fan rotors. |
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===Research platform=== |
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Quadcopters are a useful tool for university researchers to test and evaluate new ideas in a number of different fields, including [[flight control]] theory, [[Air navigation|navigation]], [[Real-time computing|real time systems]], and [[robotics]]. In recent years many universities have shown quadcopters performing increasingly complex aerial manoeuvres. Swarms of quadcopters can hover in mid-air,<ref>Saska, M.; Vakula, J.; Preucil, L. [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286680349_Swarms_of_micro_aerial_vehicles_stabilized_under_a_visual_relative_localization Swarms of Micro Aerial Vehicles Stabilized Under a Visual Relative Localization]. In ICRA2014: Proceedings of 2014 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation. 2014.</ref><ref>Saska, M. MAV-swarms: unmanned aerial vehicles stabilized along a given path using onboard relative localization. In Proceedings of 2015 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS). 2015</ref><ref>Bennet, D. J.; McInnes, C. R. [https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/13623/1/McInnes_CR_-_strathprints_-_Verifiable_control_of_a_swarm_of_unmanned_aerial_vehicles_23_Nov_09.pdf Verifiable control of a swarm of unmanned aerial vehicles]. Journal of Aerospace Engineering, vol. 223, no. 7, pp. 939–953, 2009.</ref><ref>Saska, M.; Chudoba, J.; Preucil, L.; Thomas, J.; Loianno, G.; Tresnak, A.; Vonasek, V.; Kumar, V. [https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/abstract/document/6842301/ Autonomous Deployment of Swarms of Micro-Aerial Vehicles in Cooperative Surveillance]. In Proceedings of 2014 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS). 2014.</ref> fly in formations,<ref>Saska, M.; Kasl, Z.; Preucil, L. [https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/a8b2/b317e16e609d0478dbbe339fac2760bda4a4.pdf Motion Planning and Control of Formations of Micro Aerial Vehicles]. In Proceedings of the 19th World Congress of the International Federation of Automatic Control. 2014.</ref><ref>Barnes, L.; Garcia, R.; Fields, M.; Valavanis, K. [http://people.virginia.edu/~lb3dp/resources/pubs/iros-swarm-08.pdf Swarm formation control utilizing ground and aerial unmanned systems] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170813043846/http://people.virginia.edu/~lb3dp/resources/pubs/iros-swarm-08.pdf |date=2017-08-13 }}, in IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems. 2008.</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Coordination and navigation of heterogeneous UAVs-UGVs teams localized by a hawk-eye approach <!-- - IEEE Conference Publication -->|authors=Saska, M.; Vonasek, V.; Krajnik, T.; Preucil, L.|journal=In Proceedings of 2012 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems<!--|website=ieeexplore.ieee.org-->|date=October 7–12, 2012|doi=10.1109/IROS.2012.6385517}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Saska|first1=Martin|last2=Vonásek|first2=Vojtěch|last3=Krajník|first3=Tomáš|last4=Přeučil|first4=Libor|date=September 2014 <!--2014-09-01-->|title=Coordination and navigation of heterogeneous MAV–UGV formations localized by a 'hawk-eye'-like approach under a model predictive control scheme|journal=The International Journal of Robotics Research|volume=33|issue=10|pages=1393–1412|doi=10.1177/0278364914530482|issn=0278-3649|url=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/14891/1/formations_2014_IJRR.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=September 2011 <!--2011-09-01-->|title=Cascade-type guidance law design for multiple-UAV formation keeping|journal=Aerospace Science and Technology|volume=15|issue=6|pages=431–439|doi=10.1016/j.ast.2010.08.011|issn=1270-9638|authors=No, T.S.; Kim, Y.; Tahk, M.J.; Jeon, G.E.}}</ref> and autonomously perform complex flying routines such as flips, darting through [[hula]] hoops and organising themselves to fly through windows as a group.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gizmag.com/grasp-nano-quadrotor-robots-swarm/21302/|title=UPenn's GRASP lab unleashes a swarm of Nano Quadrotors|accessdate=29 December 2014|date=2012-02-02}}</ref> |
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The [[Piasecki PA-97]] was a proposal for a large hybrid aircraft in which four helicopter fuselages were combined with a lighter-than-air airship in the 1980s. |
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There are numerous advantages to using quadcopters as versatile test platforms. They are relatively cheap, available in a variety of sizes and their simple mechanical design means that they can be built and maintained by amateurs. Due to the multi-disciplinary nature of operating a quadcopter, academics from a number of fields need to work together in order to make significant improvements to the way quadcopters perform. Quadcopter projects are typically collaborations between computer science, electrical engineering and mechanical engineering specialists.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.asee-ncs.org/proceedings/2015/Paper%20files/Student_Papers/2015_ASEE_NCS_Conference_submission_26.pdf|title = Semi-Autonomous Gesture Controlled UAV Transportation System|accessdate = 18 October 2015}}</ref> |
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===Current developments=== |
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The [[Bell Boeing Quad TiltRotor]] concept takes the fixed quadcopter concept further by combining it with the tilt rotor concept for a proposed C-130 sized military transport. |
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Quadcopter unmanned aerial vehicles are used for surveillance and reconnaissance by military and law enforcement agencies, as well as search and rescue missions in urban environments.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.popularmechanics.com/technology/military/planes-uavs/armed-quadrotors-are-coming-10720086|title=Armed Quadrotors Are Coming|work=Popular Mechanics|accessdate=29 December 2014|date=2012-07-16}}</ref> One such example is the [[Aeryon Scout]], created by Canadian company [[Aeryon Labs]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aeryon.com|title=Aeryon Labs Inc.|accessdate=29 December 2014}}</ref> which is a small UAV that can quietly hover in place and use a camera to observe people and objects on the ground. The company claims that the quadrotor played a key role in a drug raid in Central America by providing visual surveillance of a [[Illegal drug trade|drug trafficker's]] compound deep in the jungle (Aeryon has declined to name the exact country and provide other specific details).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/automaton/robotics/military-robots/aeryon-scout-quadrotor-spies-on-bad-guys-from-above|title=Aeryon Scout Quadrotor Spies On Bad Guys From Above|accessdate=29 December 2014}}</ref> |
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[[File:Ardrone-img5-front.jpg|thumb|right|Flying prototype of the [[Parrot AR.Drone]] ]] |
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[[File:Parrot AR.Drone 2.0 take-off, Nevada.jpg|thumb|[[Parrot AR.Drone]] 2.0 take-off, Nevada, 2012]] |
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[[Airbus]] is developing a battery-powered quadcopter to act as an urban air taxi, at first with a pilot but potentially autonomous in the future.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2017/10/05/airbus-on-track-to-fly-its-electric-aerial-taxi-in-2018/|title=Airbus on track to fly its electric aerial taxi in 2018|date=5 October 2017 }}</ref> |
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The weaponization of drones is now a huge concern to the wider security industry, as is their use to disrupt airspace, as seen at Gatwick Airport in the UK in December 2018,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-47919680|title=Gatwick drone attack possible inside job, say police|accessdate=9 July 2019|work=BBC News|date=2019-04-14|last1=Rowlatt|first1=Justin}}</ref> prompting the United Kingdom’s Civil Aviation Authority, via Parliament to make expedient changes to UK drone laws.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-47299805|title=Drone no-fly zone to be widened after Gatwick chaos|accessdate=9 July 2019|work=BBC News|date=2019-02-20}}</ref> |
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===Drones=== |
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After a recreational quadcopter (or "drone") crashed on the [[White House]] lawn early in the morning of January 26, 2015,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latimes.com/nation/nationnow/la-na-drones-white-house-20150126-story.html|title=Drone crashes at White House; its operator contacts Secret Service|author=Los Angeles Times|date=26 January 2015|work=latimes.com|accessdate=13 March 2015}}</ref> the [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] began a series of test flights of such equipment in order to fashion a security protocol against hostile quadcopters.<ref>[http://www.tampabay.com/news/nation/secret-service-testing-drones-to-defend-white-house/2220819 Secret Service Testing Drones In Bid To Defend White House], Associated Press, March 10, 2015</ref> |
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[[File:Whoop drone Meteor65.jpg|thumb|[[First-person view (radio control)|FPV]] "whoop" drones can be as light as 30 grams]] |
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In the first decades of the 2000s, the quadcopter layout has become popular for small-scale [[unmanned aerial vehicles]] or drones. The need for aircraft with greater maneuverability and hovering ability has led to a rise in quadcopter research. The four-rotor design allows quadcopters to be relatively simple in design yet highly reliable and maneuverable. Research is continuing to increase the abilities of quadcopters by making advances in multi-craft communication, environment exploration, and maneuverability. If these developing qualities can be combined, quadcopters would be capable of advanced autonomous missions that are currently not possible with other vehicles.<ref name="illumin">{{cite web|url=http://illumin.usc.edu/162/the-quadrotors-coming-of-age|title=Illumin - The Quadrotor's Coming of Age|date=July 2010 |access-date=29 December 2014}}</ref> |
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While small toy remote-controlled quadcopters were produced in Japan already in the early 1990s, the first one with a camera to be produced in significant quantities (Draganflyer Stabilized Aerial Video System, [[retronym|retrospectively also]] Draganflyer I, by Canadian start-up [[Draganfly]]) was not designed until 1999.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.airspacemag.com/daily-planet/brief-history-quadrotors-180963372/|title=A Brief History of Quadrotors|first=Ed|last=Darack|website=Air & Space Magazine}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url= https://www.draganfly.com/story|title= Our Story | Draganfly|website= draganfly.com|archive-url= https://archive.today/20161212143859/https://www.draganfly.com/story|archive-date= 12 December 2016|url-status= dead|access-date= 17 December 2021}}</ref> |
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During the [[Battle of Mosul (2016–17)|Battle of Mosul]] it was reported that commercially available quadcopters and drones were being used by [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant]] (ISIL) as surveillance and weapons delivery platforms using improvised cradles to drop grenades and other explosives.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://defense-update.com/20161012_drone_attacks.html|title=Weaponized Mini-Drones Entering the Fight|last=Eshel |first=Tamir|date=12 October 2016|website=[[Defense Update]]|access-date=25 February 2017|quote=}}</ref> The ISIL drone facility became a target of Royal Air Force strike aircraft.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://defense-update.com/20170117_drones_attacked.html|title=RAF Strikes Daesh Drone Facility in Mosul |last=Eshel|first=Tamir |date=17 January 2017|website=[[Defense Update]] |access-date=25 February 2017 |quote=}}</ref> |
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Around 2005 to 2010, advances in electronics allowed the production of cheap lightweight flight controllers, [[accelerometer]]s ([[Inertial measurement unit|IMU]]), [[global positioning systems|global positioning system]] and cameras. This resulted in the quadcopter configuration becoming popular for small [[unmanned aerial vehicle]]s. With their small size and maneuverability, these quadcopters can be flown indoors as well as outdoors.<ref name="dasc04">{{cite conference | first = G.M. | last = Hoffmann |author2=Rajnarayan, D.G. |author3=Waslander, S.L. |author4=Dostal, D. |author5=Jang, J.S. |author6=Tomlin, C.J. | title = The Stanford Testbed of Autonomous Rotorcraft for Multi Agent Control (STARMAC) | book-title = In the Proceedings of the 23rd Digital Avionics System Conference | pages = 12.E.4/1–10 | date = November 2004 | location = Salt Lake City, UT | doi = 10.1109/DASC.2004.1390847 | isbn = 0-7803-8539-X | citeseerx = 10.1.1.74.9999 }}</ref><ref name="büchi11">{{cite book| last = Büchi | first = Roland | title = Fascination Quadrocopter | year = 2011 | publisher = Books on Demand |isbn=978-3-8423-6731-9 }}</ref> |
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===Photography=== |
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[[File:DJI Phantom 4 in Flight March 2016.jpg|thumb|2016 model DJI Phantom 4 quadcopter with a gimbal stabilised 4K UHD camera, GPS stabilization and automatic obstacle avoidance]] |
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The largest use of quadcopters in the USA has been in the field of aerial imagery. Quadcopter UAVs are suitable for this job because of their autonomous nature and huge cost savings.<ref name="illumin"/> |
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Drones have also been used for [[light-painting]] photography.<ref>{{cite web|title=Long-Exposure Photos Capture Light Art with Drones in New Mexico|url=https://thecreatorsproject.vice.com/blog/lee-montgomery-light-art-drones-new-mexico-50statesofart|publisher=The Creators Project|accessdate=11 February 2017|date=February 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=UAS maker creates world's first drone light paintings with a holiday theme|url=http://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/drone-light-painting/|publisher=Digital Trends|accessdate=11 February 2017|date=18 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=On Falcon, On Phantom! Drones Draw Holiday 'Light Paintings' in the Sky|url=http://www.nbcnews.com/tech/innovation/falcon-phantom-drones-draw-holiday-light-paintings-sky-n482056|publisher=NBC News|accessdate=11 February 2017}}</ref> |
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For small drones, quadcopters are cheaper and more durable than conventional helicopters due to their mechanical simplicity.<ref name="acra2006">{{cite conference | first = P. | last = Pounds |author2=Mahony, R. |author3=Corke, P. | title = Modelling and Control of a Quad-Rotor Robot | book-title = In the Proceedings of the Australasian Conference on Robotics and Automation | date = December 2006 | location = Auckland, New Zealand | url = http://www.araa.asn.au/acra/acra2006/papers/paper_5_26.pdf }}</ref> Their smaller blades are also advantageous because they possess less kinetic energy, reducing their ability to cause damage. For small-scale quadcopters, this makes the vehicles safer for close interaction. It is also possible to fit quadcopters with guards that enclose the rotors, further reducing the potential for damage.<ref name="hoffmanAugust2007">{{cite conference | first = G. | last = Hoffman | author2 = Huang, H. | author3 = Waslander, S.L. | author4 = Tomlin, C.J. | title = Quadrotor Helicopter Flight Dynamics and Control: Theory and Experiment | book-title = In the Conference of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics | date = 20–23 August 2007 | location = Hilton Head, South Carolina | url = http://hoffmann.stanford.edu/papers/Quadrotor_Dynamics_GNC07.pdf | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100813162324/http://hoffmann.stanford.edu/papers/Quadrotor_Dynamics_GNC07.pdf | archive-date = 13 August 2010 }}</ref> However, as size increases, fixed propeller quadcopters develop disadvantages relative to conventional helicopters. Increasing blade size increases their momentum. This means that changes in blade speed take longer, which negatively impacts control. Helicopters do not experience this problem as increasing the size of the rotor disk does not significantly impact the ability to control blade pitch. |
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===Journalism=== |
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{{Main|Drone journalism}} |
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In 2014 The Guardian reported that major media outlets have started to put serious effort into exploring the use of drones for reporting and verifying news on events that include floods, protests and wars.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Haddou|first1=Leila|title=Journalism gets into the act as drones capture floods, protests and wars|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/media-blog/2014/feb/12/journalism-drone-capture-floods-protests-wars|newspaper=The Guardian|accessdate=11 February 2017|date=12 February 2014}}</ref> |
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Due to their ease of construction and control, quadcopters are popular as amateur [[model aircraft]] projects.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.makezine.com/archive/2010/01/how-to-quadrocopter-based-on-arduin.html|title=How-To: Quadrocopter based on Arduino|work=MAKE|access-date=29 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111211005108/http://blog.makezine.com/archive/2010/01/how-to-quadrocopter-based-on-arduin.html|archive-date=11 December 2011|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ng.uavp.ch/moin/FrontPage|title=FrontPage - UAVP-NG - The Open Source Next Generation Multicopter|access-date=29 December 2014}}</ref> |
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Some media outlets and newspapers are using drones to capture photography of celebrities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tmz.com/videos/0_tzpaidnx/|title=Paparazzi Agency -- We've Used Drones For A Long Time|work=www.tmz.com|accessdate=29 December 2014}}</ref> |
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=== |
==== Military use ==== |
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Recreational and commercial drones started to be used, initially by [[Ukrainian armed forces]] and then by Russian forces, in the [[Russian invasion of Ukraine|2022 Russian invasion on Ukraine]], initially to compensate for lack of aerial and satellite reconnaissance, and then increasingly as small bombers and loitering munitions on a scale that was described as "game changer".<ref>{{Cite web |title=How the Drone War in Ukraine Is Transforming Conflict {{!}} Council on Foreign Relations |url=https://www.cfr.org/article/how-drone-war-ukraine-transforming-conflict |access-date=2024-11-08 |website=www.cfr.org |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |title=How drone combat in Ukraine is changing warfare |url=https://www.reuters.com/graphics/UKRAINE-CRISIS/DRONES/dwpkeyjwkpm/ |access-date=2024-11-08 |work=Reuters |language=en}}</ref> |
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{{Main|Delivery drone}} |
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{{Main|Drone_warfare#Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine}} |
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In December 2013, the [[Deutsche Post]] gathered international media attention with the project Parcelcopter, in which the company tested the shipment of medical products by drone delivery. Using a [[Microdrones md4-1000]] quadrocopter, packages were flown from a pharmacy across the [[Rhine River]]. It was the first civilian package delivery via drones.<ref>{{cite web| url =http://www.cbsnews.com/pictures/dhls-parcelcopter-drone/|title=See DHL's futuristic "parcelcopter" drone deliver packages | accessdate =18 June 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url =https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/photos/prototype-quot-parcelcopter-quot-german-postal-logistics-group-photo-131407566.html| title =A prototype "parcelcopter" of German postal and logistics group Deutsche Post DHL flies in Bonn| accessdate =18 June 2014| url-status =dead| archiveurl =https://web.archive.org/web/20150417055542/https://uk.eurosport.yahoo.com/photos/prototype-quot-parcelcopter-quot-german-postal-logistics-group-photo-131407566.html| archivedate =17 April 2015}}</ref> |
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==== Criminal activity ==== |
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===Humanitarian operations=== |
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Throughout the 21st century, there have been reported cases of quadcopter drones being used for criminal activity. Due to the construction of the [[Mexico–United States border]] wall, some drug cartels have resorted to the use of quadcopters to smuggle drugs.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2020-12-21|title=Drug smugglers turn to drones, advancing operations|url=https://dronedj.com/2020/12/21/drug-smugglers-turn-to-drones-advancing-operations/|access-date=2021-08-10|website=DroneDJ|language=en-US}}</ref> However, quadcopter drones do not necessarily only smuggle drugs across the border, but there are also cases where weapons and other prohibited items are smuggled into prisons around the world.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Věznice {{!}} EAGLE.ONE|url=https://eagle.one/cs/vyuziti/veznice|access-date=2021-08-10|website=Eagle.One|language=cs}}</ref> |
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Quadcopters are being used for a wide variety of humanitarian applications from disaster relief to animal conservation. During [[Hurricane Harvey]], many drone pilots with quadcopters at their disposal descended on the city of [[Houston]], Texas to provide support to first responders.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://video.foxnews.com/v/5559507140001/?#sp=show-clips|title=Professional drone pilots join Harvey rescue effort|date=2017-08-31|website=Fox News|access-date=2018-06-06}}</ref> |
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Quadcopter drone crime is also occurring in Europe. In August 2021, a police officer in the [[Czech Republic]] seized a quadcopter that was transporting a sachet of [[methamphetamine]].<ref>{{Cite news|last=Pokorný|first=Petr|date=2021-08-10|title=Strážník v Doksech rukama chytil neregistrovaný dron, který přenášel pervitin|language=cs|work=Českolipský deník|url=https://ceskolipsky.denik.cz/zlociny-a-soudy/dron-drogy-straznici-doksy-20210810.html|access-date=2021-08-10}}</ref> |
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===Art=== |
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Quadcopters have also been used in various art projects including but not limited to drone photography. At least one drone has demonstrated the feasibility of painting graffiti on a wall with spray paint.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://diydrones.com/profiles/blogs/first-in-the-world-graffiti-drone-part-1|title=World's First Graffiti Drone (Part 1)|first1=2018 at 3:30am|last1=Posted by Tsuru Robotics on March 29|first2=View|last2=Blog|website=diydrones.com}}</ref> They may be used in [[performance art]] with new degrees of positional control that allows for new uses of puppets, characters, lights and cameras.<ref>{{cite news|last1=McNicholas|first1=Robin|title=Will 2015 be the year drones become art?|url=https://www.theguardian.com/culture-professionals-network/2014/dec/19/2015-drones-art-creative-examples|newspaper=The Guardian|accessdate=11 February 2017|date=19 December 2014}}</ref> They have also been used in [[Laser lighting display|light shows]]<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Drones As Works Of Art|url=https://www.forbes.com/video/5189118317001/|magazine=Forbes|accessdate=11 February 2017}}</ref> including most prominently in the 5 February 2017 [[Super Bowl LI halftime show#Drones|Super Bowl LI halftime show]] in which [[Lady Gaga]], in a pre-recorded segment, was accompanied by a [[Swarm robotics|swarm]] of 300 LED-equipped Intel "[[Shooting Star (drone)|Shooting Star]]" [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|drones]] forming an [[Flag of the United States|American flag]] in the sky.<ref>{{cite news|title=Drone expert explains how Lady Gaga's 300 Super Bowl halftime flyers worked|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/kitchener-waterloo/lady-gaga-super-bowl-halftime-300-drones-aeryon-labs-1.3969347|publisher=CBC News|accessdate=February 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Barrett|first1=Brian|title=All About Lady Gaga's Super Bowl Halftime Show Drones|url=https://www.wired.com/2017/02/lady-gaga-halftime-show-drones/|journal=Wired|accessdate=February 6, 2017|date=2017-02-06}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Perez|first1=Chris|title=This is what 300 drones flying in sync looks like|url=https://nypost.com/2017/02/06/this-is-what-300-drones-flying-in-sync-looks-like/|work=New York Post|accessdate=February 6, 2017|date=February 6, 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Yes, those were drones at Lady Gaga's Super Bowl 51 halftime show|url=http://ftw.usatoday.com/2017/02/yes-those-were-drones-at-lady-gagas-super-bowl-51-halftime-show|publisher=For The Win|accessdate=February 6, 2017|date=February 6, 2017}}</ref> |
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===Sport=== |
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Quadcopters are used all over the world for racing (also known as "[[drone racing]]") and freestyle events.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/09/15/sports/drone-racing-espn-sky.html|title=Drone Racing Becomes ESPN's Newest Televised Sport|first=Daniel|last=Victor|date=14 September 2016|accessdate=6 March 2017|newspaper=The New York Times}}</ref> Racing and freestyle quadcopters are built for speed and agility. Racing and freestyle drones tend to be relatively small in size, with 250 mm between the propeller shafts and/or 5-6 inch props being the usually upper end of the size scale.<ref>Liang, Oscar (February 2018). [https://oscarliang.com/mini-quad-frame-basics/ How To Choose a Mini Quad Frame - The Basics and Evolution]. ''oscarliang.com''</ref> |
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There are at least three international drone racing organisations/promotions including the [[Drone Racing League]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thedroneracingleague.com/|title=The Drone Racing League - The Premier Drone Racing League.|work=thedroneracingleague.com|accessdate=6 March 2017}}</ref>, Multi GP.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.multigp.com/about-multigp/|title=About MultiGP - MultiGP}}</ref> And the Drone Championship League<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.dcl.aero/how-it-works/|title=How drone races work | DCL - The Drone Champions League|website=Drone Champions League}}</ref> |
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==Law== |
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{{See also|Unmanned aerial vehicle#Regulation|Regulation of unmanned aerial vehicles}} |
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===In the United States=== |
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In the United States, the legality of the use of remotely controlled aircraft for commercial purposes has been the source of legal issues. Raphael Pirker, a professional photographer, was fined by the FAA in 2012 for "endangering people on the ground" (a regulatory infraction) after he used a Zephyr fixed-wing drone—a "five-pound Styrofoam model airplane"—to take [[aerial photography|aerial photos]] of the [[University of Virginia]]'s campus in 2011.<ref name="EslerAviation">David Esler, [http://aviationweek.com/bca/faa-vs-raphael-pirker FAA vs. Raphael Pirker], ''Aviation Week'' (December 28, 2015).</ref><ref name="Feith">David Feith, [https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702304256404579453120221666910 The Drone That Shot Down the Feds], ''Wall Street Journal'' (March 24, 2014).</ref> In March 2014, a federal [[administrative law judge]] ruled in Pirker's favor, determining that his drone was a "model aircraft" and thus not subject to FAA regulations on other types of aircraft.<ref name="EslerAviation"/> The FAA appealed to the [[National Transportation Safety Board]]; the NTSB appointed a new administrative law judge, who overturned the earlier finding and ruled that under the FAA's [[enabling act]], the FAA had jurisdiction to regulate "any contrivance invented, used or designed to navigate, or fly in, the air," irrespective of whether it was unmanned or manned.<ref name="EslerAviation"/> Pirker was fined $10,000, but in January 2015 settled the matter with the FAA, agreeing to pay a $1,100 fine without admitting guilt.<ref name="EslerAviation"/> According to a report in ''[[Aviation Week]]'', the matter "became a [[cause célèbre]] among the model aircraft and recreational and commercial small drone communities."<ref name="EslerAviation"/> |
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In December 2014, the FAA released a video detailing many best practices for new drone pilots, including advisories such as keeping their machines below 400 feet and always within visual sight.<ref>{{cite web|title=The FAA explains how to 'stay off the naughty list' with your new drone|url=https://www.theverge.com/2014/12/22/7438755/the-faa-explains-drone-regulations-holidays|accessdate=2014-12-22}}</ref> |
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As of March 2015, the United States created an interim policy for the legal use of unmanned aerial vehicles for commercial use where each operator can apply for an exemption filed under Section 333 with the FAA. As of August 2015 the FAA had granted over 1300 petitions to different use cases and industries.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcadiasky.com/drone-zone/regulation/commercial-drone-operators-in-the-usa/|title=Commercial Drone Operators in the USA|date=2015-09-15}}</ref> Furthermore, FAA has started discussions in November 2015 to require all hobbyists to also register personal drones to FAA website.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/news/updates/?newsId=84165|title=FAA Administrator Opens UAS Registration Meeting|website=www.faa.gov|access-date=2017-07-09}}</ref> |
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In December 2014, FAA started the registration process for all model aircraft weighing more than 0.55 pounds (≈ 250 grams) and less than 55 pounds (≈ 25 kilograms), including payloads such as all on-board cameras and other accessories. FAA's decision on the matter caused resistance from the hobbyist community at the time. In October 2015 the FAA issued rules legally requiring registration, starting January 2016, but on May 19, 2017, the United States Court of Appeals for the Washington D.C. circuit ruled that this violated the 2012 FAA Modernization and Reform Act, which states that the FAA “may not promulgate any rule or regulation regarding a model aircraft.”<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/appeals-court-strikes-down-faa-registry-recreational-drones-n763871|title=FAA recreational drone registry struck down by federal appeals court|work=NBC News|access-date=2017-07-21}}</ref> The FAA continues to allow registration on a voluntary basis, as well as requiring it for commercial use, but states that it is not required if "flying under the Special Rule for Model Aircraft" (recreational hobby use).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://registermyuas.faa.gov/|title=sUAS Registration|website=registermyuas.faa.gov|access-date=2017-07-21}}</ref> |
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In addition to the registration requirement, FAA has also released various operational requirements as follows:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/news/updates/?newsId=84386|title=FAA Small Unmanned Aircraft Registration Begins|website=www.faa.gov|access-date=2017-07-09}}</ref> |
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* Flight only below 400 feet above ground. |
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* The operator must maintain visual contact with the aircraft at all times. |
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* Not fly near manned aircraft, especially near airports. |
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* Not fly over groups of people, stadiums or sporting events. |
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* Not fly near emergency response efforts, such as accident sites or forest fires. |
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On October 5, 2018, the FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018 passed congress and was sent for the president's signature. The bipartisan bill split the hobbyist community, with the Commercial Drone Alliance in favor of the new law, while the Academy of Model Aeronautics urged its members to oppose the bill.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.congress.gov/115/bills/hr302/BILLS-115hr302enr.pdf|title=FAA Reauthorization Act of 2018}}</ref> |
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The major change in the new law is the repeal of Section 336. All sUAS owners, including quadcopters, will be required to register their aircraft and pass a general aeronautical knowledge test. In June 2019, the FAA announced new rules for recreational and non-commercial fliers. Recreational pilots would no longer be allowed to fly in controlled airspace by contacting air traffic control towers. This rule will be in effect until the LAANC system for hobbyists is rolled out in the summer of 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.faa.gov/uas/recreational_fliers/|title=Recreational Flyers & Modeler Community-Based Organizations|website=www.faa.gov|access-date=2019-06-24}}</ref> |
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==Flight dynamics== |
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Each rotor produces both a [[thrust]] and [[torque]] about its center of rotation, as well as a [[drag force]] opposite to the vehicle's direction of flight. If all rotors are spinning at the same [[angular velocity]], with rotors one and three rotating clockwise and rotors two and four counterclockwise, the net aerodynamic torque, and hence the angular acceleration about the [[Aircraft principal axes|yaw axis]], is exactly zero, which means there is no need for a tail rotor as on conventional helicopters. Yaw is induced by mismatching the balance in aerodynamic torques (i.e., by offsetting the cumulative thrust commands between the counter-rotating blade pairs).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cog.yonsei.ac.kr/quad/quad.htm|title=Quadrotor|accessdate=29 December 2014|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141227193853/http://cog.yonsei.ac.kr/quad/quad.htm|archivedate=27 December 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://hoverbear.org/2015/05/27/quadcopters-yaw/|title=Quadcopters: Yaw|publisher=hoverbear.org|author=Andrew Hobden|accessdate=3 April 2017}}</ref> |
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<gallery> |
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File:Quadrotor yaw torque.png|Schematic of reaction torques on each motor of a quadcopter aircraft, due to spinning rotors. Rotors 1 and 3 spin in one direction, while rotors 2 and 4 spin in the opposite direction, yielding opposing torques for control. |
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File:Quadrokopter-X-H-Konfiguration.gif|The red propellers are moving clockwise while the blue propellers are moving counterclockwise. |
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File:Quadrotorhover.svg|A quadrotor hovers or adjusts its altitude by applying equal thrust to all four rotors. |
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File:Quadrotoryaw.svg|A quadrotor adjusts its [[Yaw (rotation)|yaw]] by applying more thrust to rotors rotating in one direction. |
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File:Quadrotorpitch.svg|A quadrotor adjusts its pitch or roll by applying more thrust to one rotor and less thrust to its diametrically opposite rotor. |
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</gallery> |
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===Coaxial configuration=== |
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[[File:Onyxstar Fox-C8 XT xender 360.jpg|thumb|Quadcopter [[Coaxial rotors|coaxial]]{{snd}} OnyxStar FOX-C8 XT Observer from [[AltiGator]] ]] |
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In order to allow more power and stability at reduced weight, a quadcopter, like any other [[multirotor]] can employ a [[Coaxial rotors|coaxial rotor]] configuration. In this case, each arm has two motors running in opposite directions (one facing up and one facing down).<ref>Hu, Jiaqi (November 2018). [https://diydrones.com/profiles/blogs/tdrone-open-source-coaxial-drone Tdrone, Open source coaxial drone]. ''diydrones.com''</ref> |
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===Vortex ring state=== |
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All quadcopters are subject to normal rotorcraft aerodynamics, including [[vortex ring state]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LCret4rv0HE|title=Quadcopter "Wobble of Death": VRS Recovery and Avoidance|work=YouTube|accessdate=21 September 2014}}</ref> |
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===Mechanical structure=== |
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The main mechanical components needed for construction are the frame, [[propellers]] (either fixed-[[Blade pitch|pitch]] or variable-pitch), and the electric motors. For best performance and simplest control algorithms, the motors and propellers should be placed equidistant.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wyvernupenn.blogspot.ca/2010/04/mechanical-design.html|title=Wyvern Quadrotor Helicopter|author=Uriah|accessdate=29 December 2014|date=2010-04-13}}</ref> Recently, [[carbon fiber composites]] have become popular due to their light weight and structural stiffness. |
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The electrical components needed to construct a working quadcopter are similar to those needed for a modern [[RC helicopter]]. They are the [[Electronic Speed Control|electronic speed control]] module, on-board computer or controller board, and battery (or fuel cell<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.engadget.com/2015/05/20/hydrogen-powered-drone/|title=Hydrogen-powered drone will fly for hours at a time|website=Engadget}}</ref>). Typically, a hand-held transmitter is also used to allow for human input.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.instructables.com/id/Quadrotor|title=Quadrotor|author=jjdream|date=6 September 2010|work=Instructables.com|accessdate=29 December 2014}}</ref> |
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===Autonomous flight=== |
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Quadcopters and other multicopters often can fly autonomously. Many modern flight controllers use software that allows the user to mark "way-points" on a map, to which the quadcopter will fly and perform tasks, such as landing or gaining altitude.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://code.google.com/p/arducopter/ |title=arducopter - Arduino-based autopilot for mulirotor craft, from quadcopters to traditional helis - Google Project Hosting |accessdate=2013-08-15}}</ref> The [[PX4 autopilot|PX4 autopilot system]], an open-source software/hardware combination in development since 2009, has since been adopted by both hobbyists and drone manufacturing companies alike to give their quadcopter projects flight-control capabilities. Other flight applications include crowd control between several quadcopters where visual data from the device is used to predict where the crowd will move next and in turn direct the quadcopter to the next corresponding [[waypoint]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Khaleghi|first1=Amirreza|title=A Comparative Study of Control Architectures in UAV/UGV - based Surveillance System|date=2014|pages=4|url=http://www.xcdsystem.com/iie2014/abstract/finalpapers/I1276.pdf}}</ref> |
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===Endurance=== |
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Electric quadcopters have shorter endurance when compared to similarly sized electric helicopters because of the smaller "disk area" of the rotor blades. The longest flight time achieved by a battery-powered quadcopter was 2 hours, 31 minutes and 30 seconds. The record was set by Ferdinand Kickinger of Germany in 2016.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ferdinand Kickinger|title=151min30s FPV with Copter|date=2016-04-30|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6AUd7K1lG6o|access-date=2018-08-26}}</ref> In setting the record, Kickinger used low-discharge rate, high capacity Lithium Ion batteries and stripped the airframe of non-essential weight to reduce power draw and extend endurance. However, the lack of features and the use of a low discharge battery make the vehicle unusable as a commercial product.<ref>SPK Drones. [https://www.spkdrones.com/how-quadcopters-fly/ How Quadcopters Fly].</ref> |
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Alternative power sources like hydrogen fuel cells and hybrid gas-electric generators have been used to dramatically extend the endurance of quadcopters and multirotors in general because of the increased energy density of both hydrogen and gasoline, respectively.<ref>McNabb, Miriam (February 2018). [https://dronelife.com/2018/02/22/us-drone-manufacturer-harris-aerial-launches-new-hybrid-gas-electric-drone/ US Manufacturer Harris Aerial Launches New Hybrid Gas Electric Drone]. ''Dronelife''</ref> |
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==See also== |
==See also== |
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* [[AeroVelo Atlas]] |
* [[AeroVelo Atlas]] |
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* [[Human-powered helicopter]] |
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* [[Modular design]] |
* [[Modular design]] |
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==References== |
==References== |
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{{ |
{{Reflist|30em}} |
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==External links== |
==External links== |
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{{Commons category|Quadrotors}} |
{{Commons category|Quadrotors}} |
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* [https://www.grasp.upenn.edu/research/highlights UPenn GRASP Laboratory] |
* [https://www.grasp.upenn.edu/research/highlights UPenn GRASP Laboratory] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150420014324/https://www.grasp.upenn.edu/research/highlights |date=2015-04-20 }} |
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* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130227195010/http://www.idsc.ethz.ch/Research_DAndrea/Flying_Machine_Arena ETH Zurich Research on Quadrotors] |
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130227195010/http://www.idsc.ethz.ch/Research_DAndrea/Flying_Machine_Arena ETH Zurich Research on Quadrotors] |
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* [https://www.faa.gov/uas/model_aircraft/ FAA UAS Model Aircraft Operations safety guidelines] |
* [https://www.faa.gov/uas/model_aircraft/ FAA UAS Model Aircraft Operations safety guidelines] |
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* [http://www.ted.com/talks/raffaello_d_andrea_the_astounding_athletic_power_of_quadcopters.html TED Raffaello D'Andrea: The astounding athletic power of quadcopters] |
* [http://www.ted.com/talks/raffaello_d_andrea_the_astounding_athletic_power_of_quadcopters.html TED Raffaello D'Andrea: The astounding athletic power of quadcopters] |
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{{Authority control}} |
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[[Category:Quadcopters| ]] |
[[Category:Quadcopters| ]] |
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Latest revision as of 22:49, 8 November 2024
A quadcopter, also called quadrocopter, or quadrotor[1] is a type of helicopter or multicopter that has four rotors.[2]
Although quadrotor helicopters and convertiplanes have long been flown experimentally, the configuration remained a curiosity until the arrival of the modern unmanned aerial vehicle or drone. The small size and low inertia of drones allows use of a particularly simple flight control system, which has greatly increased the practicality of the small quadrotor in this application.
Design principles
Each rotor produces both lift and torque about its center of rotation, as well as drag opposite to the vehicle's direction of flight.
Quadcopters generally have two rotors spinning clockwise (CW) and two counterclockwise (CCW). Flight control is provided by independent variation of the speed and hence lift and torque of each rotor. Pitch and roll are controlled by varying the net centre of thrust, with yaw controlled by varying the net torque.[3]
Unlike conventional helicopters, quadcopters do not usually have cyclic pitch control, in which the angle of the blades varies dynamically as they turn around the rotor hub. In the early days of flight, quadcopters (then referred to either as quadrotors or simply as helicopters) were seen as a possible solution to some of the persistent problems in vertical flight. Torque-induced control issues (as well as efficiency issues originating from the tail rotor, which generates no useful lift) can be eliminated by counter-rotation, and the relatively short blades are much easier to construct. A number of manned designs appeared in the 1920s and 1930s. These vehicles were among the first successful heavier-than-air vertical take off and landing (VTOL) vehicles.[4] However, early prototypes suffered from poor performance,[4] and latter prototypes required too much pilot work load, due to poor stability augmentation[5] and limited control authority.
Torque
If all four rotors are spinning at the same angular velocity, with two rotating clockwise and two counterclockwise, the net torque about the yaw axis is zero, which means there is no need for a tail rotor as on conventional helicopters. Yaw is induced by mismatching the balance in aerodynamic torques (i.e., by offsetting the cumulative thrust commands between the counter-rotating blade pairs).[6][7]
-
Schematic of reaction torques on each motor of a quadcopter aircraft, due to spinning rotors. Rotors 1 and 3 spin in one direction, while rotors 2 and 4 spin in the opposite direction, yielding opposing torques for control. -
A quadrotor hovers or adjusts its altitude by applying equal thrust to all four rotors. -
A quadrotor adjusts its yaw by applying more thrust to rotors rotating in one direction. -
A quadrotor adjusts its pitch or roll by applying more thrust to one rotor (or two adjacent rotors) and less thrust to the diametrically opposite rotor.
Vortex ring state
All quadcopters are subject to normal rotorcraft aerodynamics, including the vortex ring state.[citation needed]
Mechanical structure
The main mechanical components are a fuselage or frame, the four rotors (either fixed-pitch or variable-pitch), and motors. For best performance and simplest control algorithms, the motors and propellers are equidistant.[8]
Coaxial rotors
In order to allow more power and stability at reduced weight, a quadcopter, like any other multirotor can employ a coaxial rotor configuration. In this case, each arm has two motors running in opposite directions (one facing up and one facing down).[citation needed]
Operations
Autonomous flight
The quadcopter configuration is relatively simple to program for autonomous flight. This has allowed experiments with complex swarming behaviour based on basic sensing of the adjacent drones.[citation needed]
Endurance
The longest flight time achieved by a battery-powered quadcopter was 2 hours, 31 minutes and 30 seconds. The record was set by Ferdinand Kickinger of Germany in 2016.[9] In setting the record, Kickinger used low discharge-rate, high-capacity lithium-ion batteries and stripped the airframe of non-essential weight to reduce power draw and extend endurance.[10]
Alternative power sources like hydrogen fuel cells and hybrid gas-electric generators have been used to dramatically extend endurance because of the increased energy density of both hydrogen and gasoline, respectively.[11]
History
Pioneers
The first heavier-than-air aerodyne to take off vertically was a four-rotor helicopter designed by Louis Breguet. It was tested only in tethered flight and to an altitude of a few feet. In 1908 it was reported as having flown 'several times', although details are sparse.[12]
Etienne Oehmichen experimented with rotorcraft designs in the 1920s. Among the designs he tried was the Oehmichen No. 2, which employed four two-blade rotors and eight propellers, all driven by a single engine. The angle of the rotor blades could be varied by warping. Five of the propellers, spinning in the horizontal plane, stabilized the machine laterally. Another propeller was mounted at the nose for steering. The remaining pair of propellers functioned as its forward propulsion. The aircraft exhibited a considerable degree of stability and increase in control-accuracy for its time, and made over a thousand test flights during the middle 1920s. By 1923 it was able to remain airborne for several minutes at a time, and on April 14, 1924, it established the first-ever FAI distance record for helicopters of 360 m (390 yd). It demonstrated the ability to complete a circular course[13] and later, it completed the first 1 kilometre (0.62 mi) closed-circuit flight by a rotorcraft.
Dr. George de Bothezat and Ivan Jerome developed the de Bothezat helicopter, with six-bladed rotors at the end of an X-shaped structure. Two small propellers with variable pitch were used for thrust and yaw control. The vehicle used collective pitch control. Built by the United States Army Air Service, it made its first flight in October 1922. About 100 flights were made by the end of 1923. The highest it ever reached was about 5 m (16 ft 5 in). Although demonstrating feasibility, it was underpowered, unresponsive, mechanically complex and susceptible to reliability problems. Pilot workload was too high during hover to attempt lateral motion.
Postwar era
The Convertawings Model A Quadrotor was intended to be the prototype for a line of much larger civil and military helicopters. The design featured two engines driving four rotors through a system of v belts. No tail rotor was needed and control was obtained by varying the thrust between rotors.[14] Flown many times from 1956, this helicopter proved the quadrotor design and it was also the first four-rotor helicopter to demonstrate successful forward flight. Due to a lack of orders for commercial or military versions however, the project was terminated. Convertawings proposed a Model E that would have a maximum weight of 42,000 lb (19 t) with a payload of 10,900 lb (4.9 t) over 300 miles and at up to 173 mph (278 km/h). The Hanson Elastic Articulated (EA) bearingless rotor grew out of work done in the early 1960s at Lockheed California by Thomas F. Hanson, who had previously worked at Convertawings on the quadrotor's rotor design and control system.[15][16]
The Gloster Crop Sprayer project of 1960 was an early example of a quadcopter drone. To be powered by a 105 hp Potez 4E air-cooled flat four-cylinder engine, its 20 gal payload was discharged through a 22 ft spray boom. Two operators carried homing beacons at opposite ends of the spray run, so that the quadcopter would always home in on a beacon and not overshoot. However, despite the much simplified design and operational requirements compared to a piloted machine, the parent company board refused to develop it and it remained a paper project.[17]
The Curtiss-Wright VZ-7 of 1958 was a VTOL aircraft designed by Curtiss-Wright in competition for the U.S. Army Transport and Research Command "flying jeep". The VZ-7 was controlled by changing the thrust of each of the four ducted fan rotors.
The Piasecki PA-97 was a proposal for a large hybrid aircraft in which four helicopter fuselages were combined with a lighter-than-air airship in the 1980s.
Current developments
The Bell Boeing Quad TiltRotor concept takes the fixed quadcopter concept further by combining it with the tilt rotor concept for a proposed C-130 sized military transport.
Airbus is developing a battery-powered quadcopter to act as an urban air taxi, at first with a pilot but potentially autonomous in the future.[18]
Drones
In the first decades of the 2000s, the quadcopter layout has become popular for small-scale unmanned aerial vehicles or drones. The need for aircraft with greater maneuverability and hovering ability has led to a rise in quadcopter research. The four-rotor design allows quadcopters to be relatively simple in design yet highly reliable and maneuverable. Research is continuing to increase the abilities of quadcopters by making advances in multi-craft communication, environment exploration, and maneuverability. If these developing qualities can be combined, quadcopters would be capable of advanced autonomous missions that are currently not possible with other vehicles.[19]
While small toy remote-controlled quadcopters were produced in Japan already in the early 1990s, the first one with a camera to be produced in significant quantities (Draganflyer Stabilized Aerial Video System, retrospectively also Draganflyer I, by Canadian start-up Draganfly) was not designed until 1999.[20][21]
Around 2005 to 2010, advances in electronics allowed the production of cheap lightweight flight controllers, accelerometers (IMU), global positioning system and cameras. This resulted in the quadcopter configuration becoming popular for small unmanned aerial vehicles. With their small size and maneuverability, these quadcopters can be flown indoors as well as outdoors.[1][22]
For small drones, quadcopters are cheaper and more durable than conventional helicopters due to their mechanical simplicity.[23] Their smaller blades are also advantageous because they possess less kinetic energy, reducing their ability to cause damage. For small-scale quadcopters, this makes the vehicles safer for close interaction. It is also possible to fit quadcopters with guards that enclose the rotors, further reducing the potential for damage.[2] However, as size increases, fixed propeller quadcopters develop disadvantages relative to conventional helicopters. Increasing blade size increases their momentum. This means that changes in blade speed take longer, which negatively impacts control. Helicopters do not experience this problem as increasing the size of the rotor disk does not significantly impact the ability to control blade pitch.
Due to their ease of construction and control, quadcopters are popular as amateur model aircraft projects.[24][25]
Military use
Recreational and commercial drones started to be used, initially by Ukrainian armed forces and then by Russian forces, in the 2022 Russian invasion on Ukraine, initially to compensate for lack of aerial and satellite reconnaissance, and then increasingly as small bombers and loitering munitions on a scale that was described as "game changer".[26][27]
Criminal activity
Throughout the 21st century, there have been reported cases of quadcopter drones being used for criminal activity. Due to the construction of the Mexico–United States border wall, some drug cartels have resorted to the use of quadcopters to smuggle drugs.[28] However, quadcopter drones do not necessarily only smuggle drugs across the border, but there are also cases where weapons and other prohibited items are smuggled into prisons around the world.[29]
Quadcopter drone crime is also occurring in Europe. In August 2021, a police officer in the Czech Republic seized a quadcopter that was transporting a sachet of methamphetamine.[30]
See also
References
- ^ a b Hoffmann, G.M.; Rajnarayan, D.G.; Waslander, S.L.; Dostal, D.; Jang, J.S.; Tomlin, C.J. (November 2004). "The Stanford Testbed of Autonomous Rotorcraft for Multi Agent Control (STARMAC)". In the Proceedings of the 23rd Digital Avionics System Conference. Salt Lake City, UT. pp. 12.E.4/1–10. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.74.9999. doi:10.1109/DASC.2004.1390847. ISBN 0-7803-8539-X.
- ^ a b Hoffman, G.; Huang, H.; Waslander, S.L.; Tomlin, C.J. (20–23 August 2007). "Quadrotor Helicopter Flight Dynamics and Control: Theory and Experiment" (PDF). In the Conference of the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. Hilton Head, South Carolina. Archived from the original (PDF) on 13 August 2010.
- ^ Stafford, Jesse (Spring 2014). "How a Quadcopter works | Clay Allen". University of Alaska, Fairbanks. Retrieved 20 January 2015.
- ^ a b Leishman, J.G. (2000). Principles of Helicopter Aerodynamics. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521858601.
- ^ Anderson, S.B. (1997). "Historical Overview of V/STOL Aircraft Technology". NASA Technical Memorandum 81280.
- ^ "Quadrotor". Archived from the original on 27 December 2014. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
- ^ Andrew Hobden. "Quadcopters: Yaw". hoverbear.org. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
- ^ Uriah (13 April 2010). "Wyvern Quadrotor Helicopter". Retrieved 29 December 2014.
- ^ Ferdinand Kickinger (30 April 2016), 151min30s FPV with Copter, archived from the original on 22 December 2021, retrieved 26 August 2018
- ^ SPK Drones. How Quadcopters Fly Archived 6 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
- ^ McNabb, Miriam (February 2018). US Manufacturer Harris Aerial Launches New Hybrid Gas Electric Drone. Dronelife
- ^ Young, Warren R. (1982). The Helicopters. Chicago: Time-Life Books. p. 28. ISBN 978-0-8094-3350-6.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ "A Successful French Helicopter" Flight 24 January 1924 p47
- ^ "1956 - 1564 - Flight Archive". flightglobal.com. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
- ^ "Patent US3261407 - Helicopter rotor system". google.com. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
- ^ Inan, Esin; Kiris, Ahmet (20 January 2007). The Seventh International Conference on Vibration Problems ICOVP 2005. Springer. ISBN 9781402054013. Retrieved 13 March 2015.
- ^ James, Derek N.; Gloster Aircraft Since 1917, Putnam, 1971, p.413.
- ^ "Airbus on track to fly its electric aerial taxi in 2018". 5 October 2017.
- ^ "Illumin - The Quadrotor's Coming of Age". July 2010. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
- ^ Darack, Ed. "A Brief History of Quadrotors". Air & Space Magazine.
- ^ "Our Story | Draganfly". draganfly.com. Archived from the original on 12 December 2016. Retrieved 17 December 2021.
- ^ Büchi, Roland (2011). Fascination Quadrocopter. Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3-8423-6731-9.
- ^ Pounds, P.; Mahony, R.; Corke, P. (December 2006). "Modelling and Control of a Quad-Rotor Robot" (PDF). In the Proceedings of the Australasian Conference on Robotics and Automation. Auckland, New Zealand.
- ^ "How-To: Quadrocopter based on Arduino". MAKE. Archived from the original on 11 December 2011. Retrieved 29 December 2014.
- ^ "FrontPage - UAVP-NG - The Open Source Next Generation Multicopter". Retrieved 29 December 2014.
- ^ "How the Drone War in Ukraine Is Transforming Conflict | Council on Foreign Relations". www.cfr.org. Retrieved 8 November 2024.
- ^ "How drone combat in Ukraine is changing warfare". Reuters. Retrieved 8 November 2024.
- ^ "Drug smugglers turn to drones, advancing operations". DroneDJ. 21 December 2020. Retrieved 10 August 2021.
- ^ "Věznice | EAGLE.ONE". Eagle.One (in Czech). Retrieved 10 August 2021.
- ^ Pokorný, Petr (10 August 2021). "Strážník v Doksech rukama chytil neregistrovaný dron, který přenášel pervitin". Českolipský deník (in Czech). Retrieved 10 August 2021.
External links
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Quadrotors.
- UPenn GRASP Laboratory Archived 2015-04-20 at the Wayback Machine
- ETH Zurich Research on Quadrotors
- FAA UAS Model Aircraft Operations safety guidelines
- TED Raffaello D'Andrea: The astounding athletic power of quadcopters
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