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Cuneiform **hal**, common in Epic of Gilgamesh, and some Amarna letters.

The cuneiform sign hal, is a common-use sign in the Epic of Gilgamesh, the Amarna letters, and other cuneiform texts, for example Hittite texts. Its common usage is syllabic for hal, but could also be use for alphabetic h or l, or the a, and for the other three vowels of e, i, or u.

Epic of Gilgamesh usage

Cuneiform hal has a single usage in the Epic of Gilgamesh, for hal. The usage is: hal, 11 times.^[1]

In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the most common usage of hal, at the beginning of words spelled "hal-" in the glossary, is for Akkadian halāqu, English, to disappear, to cause to be lost; in the Amarna letters it is used to refer to city-states, or towns, lost to the Hapiru.

In the Epic, two other words use hal at the beginning of their spellings, halbu, for English forest, three times in the Epic, Tablets VII, IV, and II. One spelling of halāpu, (English, "to clothe"), of four spellings, uses hal, Tablet IV, line 196, ú-hal-lip.

Amarna letters usage

One main usage in the Amarna letters, is for the Akkadian language word halāqu,^[2] referring to the capturing of city-states, or towns, (Amarna letter EA 288).

References

^ Parpola, 1971. The Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, Sign List, pp. 155-165, no. 002, hal, p. 155.
^ Parpola, 1971. The Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, Glossary, pp. 119-145, halāqu', p. 126; English, "to disappear"., "to cause to be lost".

Moran, William L. 1987, 1992. The Amarna Letters. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. 393 pages.(softcover, ISBN 0-8018-6715-0)
Parpola, 1971. The Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, Parpola, Simo, Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project, c 1997, Tablet I thru Tablet XII, Index of Names, Sign List, and Glossary-(pp. 119–145), 165 pages.
Rainey, 1970. El Amarna Tablets, 359-379, Anson F. Rainey, (AOAT 8, Alter Orient Altes Testament 8, Kevelaer and Neukirchen -Vluyen), 1970, 107 pages.

[1] Parpola, 1971. The Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, Sign List, pp. 155-165, no. 002, hal, p. 155.

[2] Parpola, 1971. The Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh, Glossary, pp. 119-145, halāqu', p. 126; English, "to disappear"., "to cause to be lost".

[1]

[2]

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+{{Short description|Cuneiform sign}}
+{{More footnotes needed|date=September 2021}}
 [[File:B002ellst.png|290px|left|thumb|Cuneiform '''hal''', common in [[Epic of Gilgamesh]], and some [[Amarna letters]].]]
-<!--{{Portal|Ancient Near East}}--->
-[[File:Hal,_cuneiform_usage,_lines_55,_and_57,_Reverse_of_Amarna_letter_288,_from_Governor_of_Jerusalem,_the_Jerusalem_scribe.png|thumb|right|290px|Section of [[Amarna letter EA 288]], (Reverse) showing usage of cuneiform '''hal'''. <br>(Near beginning of last 2 lines)]]
+[[File:Hal,_cuneiform_usage,_lines_55,_and_57,_Reverse_of_Amarna_letter_288,_from_Governor_of_Jerusalem,_the_Jerusalem_scribe.png|thumb|right|290px|Section of [[Amarna letter EA 288]], (Reverse) showing usage of cuneiform '''hal'''. <br>(Near beginning of last 2 lines) <br>For spellings of [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] halāqu, "over-taken" towns; usage of six places on [[Amarna letter EA 288|EA 288]] Reverse, and once on Obverse. <br>(Shown, lines 55 and 56, on Reverse)]]
+[[File:British Museum Room 10 cuneiform.jpg|thumb|Cuneiform ''hal'', 10th row, cuneiform character, no. 4 (of 5).]]
-{{commons category|Hal (cuneiform)}}
-The [[cuneiform]] sign '''hal''', is a common-use sign in the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the [[Amarna letters]], and other cuneiform texts, for example [[Hittite language|Hittite]] texts. Its common usage is syllabic for ''hal'', but could also be use for alphabetic ''h'' or ''l'', or the ''a'', for the other three vowels of ''e'', ''i'', or ''u''.
+The [[cuneiform]] sign '''hal''', is a common-use sign in the ''[[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', the [[Amarna letters]], and other cuneiform texts, for example [[Hittite language|Hittite]] texts. Its common usage is syllabic for ''hal'', but could also be use for alphabetic ''h'' or ''l'', or the ''a'', and for the other three vowels of ''e'', ''i'', or ''u''.
 ==''Epic of Gilgamesh'' usage==
 Cuneiform ''hal'' has a single usage in the [[Epic of Gilgamesh]], for ''hal''. The usage is: ''hal'', 11 times.<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Sign List, pp. 155-165, no. 002, '''hal''', p. 155.</ref>
+In the Epic of Gilgamesh, the most common usage of ''hal'', at the beginning of words spelled ''"hal-"'' in the glossary, is for [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] ''halāqu'', [[English language|English]], ''to disappear'', ''to cause to be lost''; in the Amarna letters it is used to refer to [[city-state]]s, or towns, lost to the [[Hapiru]].
-==Amarna letters usage==
-One main usage in the [[Amarna letters]], is for the [[Akkadian language]] word ''halāqu'', referring to the capturing of [[city-state]]s, or towns.
+In the Epic, two other words use ''hal'' at the beginning of their spellings, ''halbu'', for English ''forest'', three times in the Epic, Tablets VII, IV, and II. One spelling of ''halāpu'', (English, ''"to clothe"''), of four spellings, uses ''hal'', Tablet IV, line 196, [[ú (cuneiform)|ú]]-'''hal'''-[[lip (cuneiform)|lip]].
-{{clear}}
-<!--It has multiple sub-uses in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', as well as use for the [[sumerogram]] (capital letter ([[majuscule]])), '''UR'''. In the Epic, ''UR'' is used to spell [[Akkadian language]] ''barbaru'', "wolf", as ''UR.BAR.RA (in Tablet VI, and Tablet XI).<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Glossary, pp. 119-145, '''barbaru''', p. 122.</ref>
 ==Amarna letters usage==
-One main usage in the [[Amarna letters]], is for the [[Akkadian language]] word ''halāqu'', referring to the capturing of [[city-state]]s, or towns.
+One main usage in the [[Amarna letters]], is for the [[Akkadian language]] word ''halāqu'',<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Glossary, pp. 119-145, '''halāqu'''', p. 126; [[English language|English]], '''"to disappear".''', '''"to cause to be lost".'''</ref> referring to the capturing of [[city-state]]s, or towns, ([[Amarna letter EA 288]]).
-Cuneiform ''ur'' is a syllabic for "ur", and an alphabetic for "u", or "r". In the Amarna letters, usage is sumerogrammic for [[English language]] "dog", spelled either ''UR.KI'', or ''UR.KU'',<ref>[[William L. Moran|Moran, William L.]] 1987, 1992. ''The Amarna Letters.'' EA 138, note 8, p. 224, & ''"Index of Words"'', p. 377. </ref> but the 'dog' reference can be found in many Amarna letters.
-The cuneiform ''ur'' [[cuneiform]] character (no. 575) is built in a 'rectangular box form', sitting upon a long horizontal stroke. It contains the 2-verticals at left and 1-vertical at right. Three other signs are similarly built, but contain 1-vertical at left, with 2-verticals at right for lu (cuneiform) (with 3-short horizontals in the center, no. 537), and the same but only 1-short horizontal at center, [[ib (cuneiform)]](also ''ip'', no. 535). The third similar sign, (no. 536) has 1-vertical left and right, [[ku (cuneiform)]]. It also has 3-short verticals in the center, but is often such a compressed cuneiform character that individual strokes are overwritten, and difficult to identify.
-==''Epic of Gilgamesh'' usage==
-Cuneiform ''ur'' has many sub-uses in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh''. The following can be found: ''leq''--(1) time, ''lik''--(37), ''liq''--(3), ''tas''--(1), ''taṣ''--(2), ''taš''--(15), ''tés''--(1), ''téš''--(1), ''ur''--(93), ''UR''--(16) times.
--->
-<!--and for '''TU'''-(the [[sumerogram]], capital letter ([[majuscule]]), in the [[Hittite language]] and other cuneiform texts, is a common-use syllabic sign for ''"tu"'', and also with a syllabic use for ''"t"'', or ''"u"''. It is not a multi-use sign, with other alphabetic sub-varieties.
-The Sumerian language version is similar to the usage in the [[Amarna letters]], with the 3-horizontal strokes connecting the 4-angled wedges on the left, and connected to the vertical horizontal single-stroke, at right. Varieties exist: for example [[Amarna letter EA 271]] shows 4-hortizontal long-strokes, with 2 short-strokes, between the two long ones, (see here, 2nd line from bottom (tablet Obverse): [http://amarna.ieiop.csic.es/amarna/Tablillas/EA%20271/EA%20271-VAT%201531%20(1).jpg].
-The [[Hittite language]] version of ''tu'', (and [[ideogram]] ''TU'') is identical in common form to the Sumerian.<ref>Held, Schmalstieg, Gertz, 1987. ''Beginning Hittite''. Warren H. Held, Jr, William R. Schmalstieg, Janet E. Gertz, c. 1987, Slavica Publishers, Inc. w/ Glossaries, Sign List, Indexes; Sign List, pp. 180-202, '''tu''', no. 286, p. 200.</ref>
-The composition of the sign is effectively the 4-wedge strokes at left, (being [[še (cuneiform)]]) connected to the rest of the cuneiform sign. Cuneiform [[še (cuneiform)|še]] is also a common-use syllabic sign, with few subvarieties. (Two example angled-wedges: [[Image:Babylonian digit 0.svg|100x24px]]).
-==''Epic of Gilgamesh'' use==
-For the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', the following usage is found in Tablets I-XII: ''tu''-(193), ''tú''-(2), and ''TU''-(9) times.<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Sign List, p. 155, Sign no. 058, '''tu'''.</ref> ''TU'' is used for the name of the 'king of [[Shuruppak]]'-(father of [[Utnapishtim]]), Ubara-Tutu, and it is spelled: <sup>[[diš (cuneiform)|m]]</sup>UBARA-<sup>[[an (cuneiform)|d]]</sup>TU.TU.<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Index of Names, Personal Names, '''Ubaru-Tutu''', p. 146.</ref>
-Two other uses of ''TU''<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Logograms and Their Readings, pp. 117-8, p. 118, for '''TU''' & '''TU.MUŠEN'''..</ref> in the Epic are as follows: "TU" is also the [[Akkadian language]] verb, ''erēbu'', for [[English language]] ''"to enter"'', ''"to set"'', used in Tablet III and VII. For the [[sumerogram]] "TU.[[MUŠEN (bird Sumerogram)|MUŠEN]]", for Akkadian ''summu'', the English ''dove'', it is used 2-times in the [[Gilgamesh flood myth]]-(Noah's Ark story), Tablet XI.
--->
-<!--==Epic of Gilgamesh use==Š
-In the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' it used in the following numbers: ''la''-(348), ''LA''-(5) times.<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Sign List, p. 155, Sign '''La'''.</ref>
-==Amarna letter usage==
-The [[Amarna letter]] usage of cuneiform ''la'' is common for the spelling of [[Akkadian language]] "lā", [[English language]], "not", as it is composed of 'la-a'-([[Image:B089ellst.png|100x24px]][[Image:C+B-Persia-Cuneiform8.PNG|100x24px]]). It is also used infrequently for just 'la', for "not".
--->
-<!--[[Akkadian language]] for ''mû'',<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Glossary, pp. 119-145, '''mû''', p. 132.</ref> "water", which is used in the ''Gilgamesh flood myth'', Chapter XI of the Epic, or other passages. The sign is also used extensively in the [[Amarna letters]].
-Cuneiform ''a'' is the most common of the 4-vowels in the [[Akkadian language]], ''a'', ''e'', ''i'', and ''u''. All vowels can be interchangeable, depending on the [[scribe]], though spellings of Akkadian words in dictionaries, will be formalized, and typically: unstressed, a 'long-vowel', or thirdly, a 'combined' vowel (often spelled with two signs (same vowel, ending the first sign, and starting the next sign), thus combined into the single vowel, ''â'', ''ê'', ''î'', or ''û''.). Cuneiform ''a'' is the most common of the four vowels, as can be shown by usage in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', the usage numbers being (ú (u, no. 2) is more common than [[u (cuneiform)|u]], (no. 1), which has additional usages, numeral "10", and "and", "but", etc.): '''''a'''''-(1369), '''''e'''''-(327), '''''i'''''-(698), '''''ú'''''-(493). (For u, only: '''''u'''''-(166));<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Sign List, pp. 155-165, Signs '''a''', '''e''', '''i''', '''ú''', and '''u'''.</ref> The usage for '''a''', includes the usage for Akkadian ''a-na'', (''ana''),<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Glossary, pp. 119-145, '''ana''', pp. 120-121.</ref> the preposition, "for", "to", etc., about 250 usages (therefor usage: 1369-250).
-==I-ligatured-a, as "ia", (iYa)==
-The combined vowel ''i'', [[Image:B252ellst.png|100x24px]], connected (ligatured, attached to ''a'')-[[Image:Cuneiform sumer a.jpg|100x24px]], ligatured to cuneiform ''a'' is the [[ia (cuneiform)]]--[[Image:B260ellst.png|100x24px]]. It has usages in the Akkadian language for words starting with "ia", for example "iā'u", (English "mine"), "iāši", (English "(to) me"), and "iāti", (English "me").
-In the Amarna letters ''ia'' is also used as a suffix: '''''-ia''''', for example [[Amarna letter EA 325]], ''"To King (Pharaoh)-Lord-mine'' (-'''ia'''), ''[[An (cuneiform)|God]]-mine'', ''Sun-[[An (cuneiform)|God]]-mine'', ...." ("A-[[Na (cuneiform)|na]] Lugal-bēlu-'''[[ia (cuneiform)|ia]]''', An-[[meš (cuneiform)|meš]]-'''[[ia (cuneiform)|ia]]''', An-[[UTU (sun Sumerogram)|UTU]]-'''[[ia (cuneiform)|ia]]''', ....")
-==Amarna letter usage==
-The [[Amarna letter]] usage of cuneiform ''a'' has the same high usage for Akkadian language ''ana'' (a-[[na (cuneiform)|na]]) as does the ''Epic of Gilgamesh''.
-Two other high usages for ''a'' and typical to the Amarna letters is the negative: ''lā'', Akkadian language, "lā", used before the spelling of the ''verb'', which follows. In the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'' it almost exclusively is spelled just ''lā'', without the extra ''a''. The opposite is true for the Amarna letters, which has it spelled almost exclusively ''[[la (cuneiform)|la]]-a'', (for "lā") thus making it very easy to find and read in the letters, and thus the verb usually follows.
-===Akkadian "enūma", "eninna", often a [[segue]]===
-Because the Amarna letters often state the condition of events in the regions where the letters originate, the events are often previewed by ''Now...'', or ''When...'', which are topical [[segue]]s. They sometimes start new paragraphs. At a minimum, they simply continue the text, as 'seque transition points'. (Some letters, [[Amarna letter EA 19|EA 19]], Para 2, also include spaces, as part of the segue.)
-The segue word: Akkadian language "'''enūma'''",<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Glossary, pp. 119-145, '''enûma''', p. 124.</ref> (English "when") is only used three times in the ''Epic of Gilgamesh'', as opposed to the Amarna letters where it is used hundreds of times (reverse side of [[Amarna letter EA 362|EA 362]], 7 times, lines 33-68, mostly spelled "inûma"). In the Amarna letters, Akkadaian ''enūma'' is used and spelled starting with either ''i'', ''e'', or ''a'', thus ''inūma'', ''enūma'', or ''anūma'', all for Akkadian language "enūma". The usage is probably specific to the scribe, as the writer of the letter (not necessarily the 'author' of the letter).
-Akkadian language "eninna", (English "now") is used far less in the Amarna letters. ''Anūma'', ''enūma'', and ''inūma'' is the common adverb, for ''now'', or ''when'', (''now'', ("now, at this time", as the segue)).-->
 ==References==
 {{reflist}}
-<!--*Held, Schmalstieg, Gertz, 1987. ''Beginning Hittite''. Warren H. Held, Jr, William R. Schmalstieg, Janet E. Gertz, c. 1987, Slavica Publishers, Inc. w/ Glossaries, Sign List, Indexes, etc, 218 pages.-->
 *[[William L. Moran|Moran, William L.]] 1987, 1992. ''The Amarna Letters.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. 393 pages.(softcover, {{ISBN|0-8018-6715-0}})
 * Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', [[Simo Parpola|Parpola, Simo]], [[Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project]], c 1997, Tablet I thru Tablet XII, Index of Names, Sign List, and Glossary-(pp.&nbsp;119–145), 165 pages.
 *[[Anson Rainey|Rainey]], 1970. ''El Amarna Tablets, 359-379,'' [[Anson Rainey|Anson F. Rainey]], (AOAT 8, ''Alter Orient Altes Testament 8'', Kevelaer and Neukirchen -Vluyen), 1970, 107 pages.
+{{commons category|Hal (cuneiform)}}
-<!--
-*Held, Schmalstieg, Gertz, 1987. ''Beginning Hittite''. Warren H. Held, Jr, William R. Schmalstieg, Janet E. Gertz, c. 1987, Slavica Publishers, Inc. w/ Glossaries, Sign List, Indexes, etc, 218 pages.
-*[[William L. Moran|Moran, William L.]] 1987, 1992. ''The Amarna Letters.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. 393 pages.(softcover, ISBN 0-8018-6715-0)
-<ref>[[William L. Moran|Moran, William L.]] 1987, 1992. ''The Amarna Letters.'' EA 147, ''A Hymn to the Pharaoh'', pp. 233-235. </ref>
-* Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', [[Simo Parpola|Parpola, Simo]], [[Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project]], c 1997, Tablet I thru Tablet XII, Index of Names, Sign List, and Glossary-(pp.&nbsp;119–145), 165 pages.
-*[[Anson Rainey|Rainey]], 1970. ''El Amarna Tablets, 359-379,'' [[Anson Rainey|Anson F. Rainey]], (AOAT 8, ''Alter Orient Altes Testament 8'', Kevelaer and Neukirchen -Vluyen), 1970, 107 pages.
-SIGN
-<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Sign List, pp. 155-165, no. 068, p. 156.</ref>
-<ref>Rainey, 1970. ''El Amarna Tablets, 359-379,'' Glossary:Vocabulary, pp. 55-87, p. 24.</ref>
-<ref>[[Anson Rainey|Rainey]], 1970. ''El Amarna Tablets, 359-379,'' ''EA 365, [[Biridiya]] of [[Megiddo]] to the King,'' pp. 24-27.</ref>
-GLOSS////Ù ù Û û Ü ü Ǔ ǔ Ŭ ŭ Ū ū Ũ ũ Ů ů Ų ų Ụ ụ Ű ű Ǘ ǘ Ǜ ǜ Ǚ ǚ Ǖ ǖ
-<ref>Parpola, 1971. ''The Standard Babylonian [[Epic of Gilgamesh]]'', Glossary, pp. 119-145, '''aššum''', p. 122.</ref>
-CCCCCCCCC
-GLOSS-RAINEY
-<ref>[[Anson Rainey|Rainey]], 1970. ''El Amarna Tablets, 359-379'', ''Glossary:Vocabulary'', '''saparu''', pp. 55-87, p. 81.</ref>
-GLOSS-Buccellatti
-<ref>[[Giorgio Buccellatti|Buccellatti, Giorgio]], (Ugarit-Forschungen 11, 1979). ''Comparative Graphemic Analysis of [[Old Babylonian]] and Western Akkadian'', pp. 95-100.</ref>
-UUU-FFFORS
-*Ugarit Forschungen (Neukirchen-Vluyn). UF-11 (1979) honors [[Claude Schaeffer]], with about 100 articles in 900 pages. pp 95, ff, "Comparative Graphemic Analysis of [[Old Babylonian]] and Western Akkadian", ( i.e. Ugarit and [[Amarna letters|Amarna]] (letters), three others, [[Mari, Syria|Mari]], OB,Royal, OB,non-Royal letters). See above, in text.
-*[[Giorgio Buccellatti|Buccellatti, Giorgio]]. ''Comparative Graphemic Analysis of Old Babylonian and Western Akkadian'', from ''Ugarit-Forschungen 8'', (Neukirchen-Vluyen).
-*[[Anson Rainey|Rainey]], 1970. ''El Amarna Tablets, 359-379,'' [[Anson Rainey|Anson F. Rainey]], (AOAT 8, ''Alter Orient Altes Testament 8'', Kevelaer and Neukirchen -Vluyen), 1970, 107 pages.
-<ref>Held, Schmalstieg, Gertz, 1987. ''Beginning Hittite'', Sign List, page 194, page 200.</ref>
-Amarna letter mp3h8878.jpg
--->
-<!--*[[Anson Rainey|Rainey]], 1970. ''El Amarna Tablets, 359-379,'' [[Anson Rainey|Anson F. Rainey]], (AOAT 8, ''Alter Orient Altes Testament 8'', Kevelaer and Neukirchen -Vluyen), 1970, 107 pages.-->
-<!--*[[William L. Moran|Moran, William L.]] 1987, 1992. ''The Amarna Letters.'' Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987, 1992. 393 pages.(softcover, ISBN 0-8018-6715-0))
-<ref>[[Anson Rainey|Rainey]], 1970. ''El Amarna Tablets, 359-379,'' ''EA 365, [[Biridiya]] of [[Megiddo]] to the King,'' pp. 24-27.</ref>-->
-----
-{{col-begin}}
-{{col-2}}
-<gallery widths="170px" heights="3210px" perrow=widths="170px" heights="310px" perrow="2">
-File:British Museum Room 10 cuneiform.jpg|Cuneiform ''hal'', 10th row, cuneiform character, no. 4 (of 5).
-</gallery>
-{{col-2}}
-<!--{{DEFAULTSORT:Ti (Cuneiform)}}-->
+[[Category:Cuneiform signs]]
-<!--[[Category:Sumerian words and phrases]]-->
-[[Category:Akkadian language]]
-[[Category:Cuneiform signs, Amarna letters]]