View source for Vandals

{{short description|East Germanic tribe}}
{{Hatnote|"Vandal" and "Vandali" redirect here. For other uses, see [[Vandal (disambiguation)]]. For more information about [[vandalism on Wikipedia]], see [[Wikipedia:Vandalism]].}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
[[File:KHM Wien VIIb 105 - Vandalic goldfoil jewelry, c. 300 AD.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Vandalic gold foil jewellery from the 3rd or 4th century]]
[[File:Archive-ugent-be-79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2 DS-213 (cropped).jpg|thumb|150px|A 16th century perception of the Vandals, illustrated in the manuscript "Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel" which means "Theater of all the peoples and nations of the earth with their various clothes and ornaments, both ancient and modern, diligently depicted in nature". Painted by [[Lucas de Heere]] in the second half of the 16th century and preserved in the [[Ghent University Library]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Théâtre de tous les peuples et nations de la terre avec leurs habits et ornemens divers, tant anciens que modernes, diligemment depeints au naturel par Luc Dheere peintre et sculpteur Gantois[manuscript]|url=https://lib.ugent.be/viewer/archive.ugent.be:79D46426-CC9D-11E3-B56B-4FBAD43445F2#?c=&m=&s=&cv=29&xywh=-4120,-220,13707,8315|access-date=2020-08-25|website=lib.ugent.be}}</ref>|alt=]]
The '''Vandals''' were a [[Germanic peoples|Germanic people]] who were first reported in the written records as inhabitants of what is now [[Poland]], during the period of the [[Roman empire]]. Much later, in the fifth century, a group of Vandals led by kings established [[Vandal Kingdom|Vandal kingdoms]] first within the [[Iberian Peninsula]], and then in the western [[Mediterranean islands]], and [[North Africa]].

Archaeologists associate the early Vandals with the [[Przeworsk culture]], which has led to some authors equating them to the [[Lugii]], who were another group of Germanic peoples associated with that same archaeological culture and region. Expanding into [[Roman Dacia|Dacia]] during the [[Marcomannic Wars]] and to [[Pannonia]] during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]], the Vandals were confined to Pannonia by the [[Goths]] around 330 AD, where they received permission to settle from [[Constantine the Great]]. Around 400, raids by the [[Huns]] from the east forced many Germanic tribes to migrate west into the territory of the [[Roman Empire]] and, fearing that they might be targeted next, the Vandals were also pushed westwards, [[Crossing of the Rhine|crossing]] the [[Rhine]] into [[Gaul]] along with other tribes in 406.<ref name="Bam">{{cite web|url= http://www.roman-empire.net/articles/article-016.html|title= History of the Vandals|publisher= Roman Empire|first= Adam|last= Brian|access-date= May 21, 2017|url-status= dead|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170623155644/http://www.roman-empire.net/articles/article-016.html|archive-date= June 23, 2017}}</ref> In 409, the Vandals crossed the [[Pyrenees]] into the [[Iberian Peninsula]], where the [[Hasdingi]] and the [[Silingi]] settled in [[Gallaecia]] (northwest Iberia) and [[Hispania Baetica|Baetica]] (south-central Iberia).

On the orders of the Romans, the [[Visigoths]] invaded Iberia in 418. They almost wiped out the [[Alans]] and Silingi Vandals who voluntarily subjected themselves to the rule of Hasdingian leader [[Gunderic]]. Gunderic was then pushed from Gallaecia to Baetica by a Roman-[[Suebi]] coalition in 419. In 429, under king [[Genseric]] (reigned 428–477), the Vandals entered [[North Africa during Antiquity|North Africa]]. By 439 they [[Vandal Kingdom|established a kingdom]] which included the [[Africa (Roman province)|Roman province of Africa]] as well as [[Sicily]], [[Corsica]], [[Sardinia]], [[Malta]] and the [[Balearic Islands]]. They fended off several Roman attempts to recapture the African province, and [[Sack of Rome (455)|sacked the city of Rome]] in 455. Their kingdom collapsed in the [[Vandalic War]] of 533–534, in which Emperor [[Justinian I]]'s forces reconquered the province for the [[Byzantine Empire|Eastern Roman Empire]].

As the Vandals plundered Rome for fourteen days,<ref>{{harvnb|Heather|2005|p=379}}</ref> [[Renaissance]] and [[Early modern period|early-modern]] writers characterized the Vandals as prototypical [[barbarian]]s. This led to the use of the term "[[vandalism]]" to describe any pointless destruction, particularly the "barbarian" defacing of artwork. However, some modern historians have emphasised the role of Vandals as continuators of aspects of [[Roman culture]], in the transitional period from [[Late Antiquity]] to the [[Early Middle Ages]].<ref>
Contrasting articles in Frank M. Clover and R.S. Humphreys, eds, ''Tradition and Innovation in Late Antiquity'' (University of Wisconsin Press) 1989, highlight the Vandals' role as continuators: Frank Clover stresses continuities in North African Roman mosaics and coinage and literature, whereas Averil Cameron, drawing upon archaeology, documents how swift were the social, religious and linguistic changes once the area was conquered by Byzantium and then by Islam.
</ref>

== Name ==
[[File:Halsring neck ring with plug clasp from the Vandalic Treasure of Osztrópataka displayed at the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, Austria.jpg|thumb|right|Neck ring with plug clasp from the Vandalic [[Treasure of Osztrópataka]] displayed at the [[Kunsthistorisches Museum]] in [[Vienna]], Austria.]]
The [[ethnonym]] is attested as ''Wandali'' and ''Wendilenses'' by [[Saxo Grammaticus|Saxo]], as ''Vendill'' in [[Old Norse]], and as ''Wend(e)las'' in [[Old English]], all going back to a [[Proto-Germanic]] form reconstructed as *''Wanđilaz''.{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=653–654}}{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=446}} The etymology of the name remains unclear. According to linguist [[Vladimir Orel]], it may stem from the Proto-Germanic adjective *''wanđaz'' ('turned, twisted'), itself derived from the verb *''wenđanan'' (or ''*winđanan''), meaning 'to wind'.{{Sfn|Orel|2003|p=446}} Alternatively, it has been derived from a root *''wanđ-'', meaning 'water', based on the idea that the tribe was originally located near the [[Limfjord]] (a [[Sound (geography)|sea inlet]] in Denmark).{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=653–654}} The stem can also be found in [[Old High German]] ''wentilsēo'' and Old English ''wendelsǣ'', both literally meaning 'Vandal-sea' and designating the [[Mediterranean Sea]].{{Sfn|de Vries|1962|pp=653–654}}<ref>{{Cite book|last=Corazza|first=Vittoria Dolcetti|title=Il mare dei Germani|date=1986|publisher=Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei|page=487}}</ref>

The Germanic mythological figure of ''[[Aurvandil]]l'' has been interpreted by [[Rudolf Much]] to mean 'Shining Vandal'. Much forwarded the theory that the tribal name ''Vandal'' reflects worship of Aurvandil or the [[Divine Twins]], possibly involving an [[origin myth]] that the Vandalic kings were descended from Aurvandil (comparable to the case of [[List of ancient Germanic peoples#Mythical founders|many other Germanic tribal names]]).<ref>R. Much, ''Wandalische Götter'', Mitteilungen der Schlesischen Gesellschaft für Volkskunde 27, 1926, 20–41. "R. Much has brought forth a relatively convincing argument to show that the very name ''Vandal'' reflects the worship of the Divine Twins." Donald Ward, ''The divine twins: an Indo-European myth in Germanic tradition'', University of California publications: Folklore studies, nr. 19, 1968, p. 53.</ref>

Some [[Middle Ages|medieval]] authors equated two classical ethnonyms, "Vandals" and [[Vistula Veneti|Veneti]], and applied both to [[West Slavs]], leading to the term [[Wends]], which has been used for various Slavic-speaking groups and is still used for [[Sorbs|Lusatians]]. However, modern scholars derive "Wend" from "Veneti", and do not equate the Veneti and Vandals.<ref>[[Annales Alamannici]], 795 ad</ref><ref>[[Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum]] by [[Adam of Bremen|Adam Bremensis]] 1075 ad</ref><ref>Roland Steinacher "[http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c61705/DISSERTATION-Volltext.pdf Studien zur vandalischen Geschichte. Die Gleichsetzung der Ethnonyme Wenden, Slawen und Vandalen vom Mittelalter bis ins 18. Jahrhundert] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070119061857/http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c61705/DISSERTATION-Volltext.pdf |date=2007-01-19 }}", 2002</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Lenček|first=Rado L.|author-link=Rado Lenček|year=1990|title=The Terms Wende-Winde, Wendisch-Windisch in the Historiographic Tradition of the Slovene Lands|journal=Slovene Studies|volume=12|issue=2|doi=10.7152/ssj.v12i1.3797|issn=0193-1075|doi-access=free}}</ref>

The name of the Vandals has been connected to that of [[Vendel]], the name of a province in [[Uppland]], Sweden, which is also eponymous of the [[Vendel Period]] of Swedish prehistory, corresponding to the late [[Germanic Iron Age]] leading up to the [[Viking Age]]. The connection is considered tenuous at best and more plausibly the result of chance, though [[Scandinavia]] is considered the probable homeland of the tribe prior to the [[Migration Period]].<ref name ="History Files">{{cite web| url = http://epns.nottingham.ac.uk/browse/id/53282b41b47fc407a900034a|title = Vandali (Vandals) (Germans): Incorporating the Asdingas & Silingi|work = Kingdoms of the Germanic Tribes| date=31 December 1999 |publisher = English Place-name Society |access-date=10 June 2022}}</ref>

==Classification==
As the Vandals eventually came to live outside of [[Germania]], they were not considered ''Germani'' by [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman]] authors. Neither another [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]]-speaking group, the [[Goths]], nor [[Norsemen]] (early Scandinavians), were counted among the ''Germani'' by the Romans.<ref>{{harvnb|Wolfram|1997|p=4}} "Goths, Vandals, and other East Germanic tribes were differentiated from the Germans... In keeping with this classification, post-Tacitean Scandinavians were also no longer counted among the Germans...."</ref>

Since the Vandals spoke a [[Germanic languages|Germanic language]] (mainly:[[Vandalic language|Vandalic]]) and belonged to [[early Germanic culture]], they are classified as a [[Germanic peoples|Germanic people]] by modern scholars.<ref name="Germanic">
*{{cite book |last1=Heather |first1=Peter John |author-link1=Peter Heather |date=2012 |chapter=Vandals |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199545568.001.0001/acref-9780199545568-e-6693? |editor1-last=Hornblower |editor1-first=Simon |editor1-link=Simon Hornblower |editor2-last=Spawforth |editor2-first=Antony |editor3-last=Eidinow |editor3-first=Esther |editor3-link=Esther Eidinow |title=[[The Oxford Classical Dictionary]] |edition=4th |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191735257 |access-date=January 25, 2020 |quote=Vandals, a Germanic people... }}
*{{cite book |last1=Hitchner |first1=R. Bruce |author-link1=R. Bruce Hitchner |date=2005 |chapter=Vandals |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780195046526.001.0001/acref-9780195046526-e-5683? |editor1-last=Kazhdan |editor1-first=Alexander P. |editor1-link=Alexander Kazhdan |title=[[The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780195187922 |access-date=January 25, 2020 |quote=Vandals... a Germanic people }}
*{{cite book |date=2009 |chapter=Vandals |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199534043.001.0001/acref-9780199534043-e-4473? |editor1-last=Darvill |editor1-first=Timothy |editor1-link=Timothy Darvill |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191727139 |access-date=January 25, 2020 |quote=Vandals. Germanic people, perhaps originally from the Baltic region, who invaded Gaul in ad 406, and established a kingdom in Spain. }}
*{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=Matthew |author-link1=Matthew Bennett (historian) |date=2004 |chapter=Vandals |chapter-url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780198606963.001.0001/acref-9780198606963-e-1325? |editor1-last=Holmes |editor1-first=Richard |editor1-link=Richard Holmes (military historian) |editor2-last=Singleton |editor2-first=Charles |editor3-last=Jones |editor3-first=Spencer |title=The Oxford Companion to Military History |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |isbn=9780191727467 |access-date=January 25, 2020 |quote=Vandals were a Germanic people... }}
</ref>

==History==
===Origins===
[[File:Origins 300BC.png|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Germanic and Proto-Slavic tribes of Central Europe around 3rd century BC.]]
[[File:Europa Germanen 50 n Chr.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|Tribes of Central Europe in the mid-1st century AD. The Vandals/[[Lugii]] are depicted in green, in the area of modern Poland.]]

====Early classical sources====
The earliest mention of the Vandals is from [[Pliny the Elder]], who used the term ''Vandili'' in a broad way to define one of the major groupings of all [[Germanic peoples]]. Tribes within this category who he mentions are the [[Burgundiones]], [[Varini]], [[Carini (Germanic tribe)|Carini]] (otherwise unknown), and the [[Gutones]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D28 |title=Natural History 4.28 |access-date=2014-01-14 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130530161627/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.02.0137%3Abook%3D4%3Achapter%3D28 |archive-date=2013-05-30 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Tacitus mentioned the ''Vandilii'', but only in a passage explaining legends about the origins of the Germanic peoples. He names them as one of the groups sometimes thought to be one of the oldest divisions of these peoples, along with the [[Marsi (Germanic)|Marsi]], [[Gambrivii]], [[Suebi]] but does not say where they live, or which peoples are within this category. On the other hand, Tacitus and Ptolemy give information about the position of Varini, Burgundians, and Gutones in this period, and these indications suggest that the Vandals in this period lived between the Oder and Vistula rivers.{{sfn|Berndt|2010|p=549}}

Ptolemy furthermore mentioned the [[Silingi]] who were later counted as Vandals, as living south of the [[Semnones]], who were Suebians living on the Elbe, and stretching to the Oder.<ref>"The Geography of Claudius Ptolemy", Book II, Chapter 10: "Greater Germany"". [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/2/10.html transcript] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221102001414/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Periods/Roman/_Texts/Ptolemy/2/10.html |date=2022-11-02 }}</ref>

The Hasdingi, who later led the invasion of Carthage, do not appear in written records until the 2nd century and the time of the Marcomannic wars.<ref>Walter Goffart, ''Barbarian Tides'', p. 85.</ref> The Lacringi appear in 3rd century records.<ref>Walter Pohl, ''Die Germanen'', p. 23</ref>

====Lugii====
{{Main|Lugii}}
The Lugii, who were also mentioned in early classical sources in the same region, are likely to have been the same people as the Vandals.<ref name=Anderson>{{harvnb|Anderson|1938|p=198}}</ref><ref name=Wolfram>{{harvnb|Wolfram|1997|p=42}}</ref> The Lugii are mentioned by [[Strabo]], [[Tacitus]] and [[Ptolemy]] as a large group of tribes between the Vistula and the Oder. Strabo and Ptolemy do not mention the Vandals at all, only the Lugii, Tacitus mentions them in a passage about the ancestry of the Germanic peoples without saying where they lived, and Pliny the Elder in contrast mentions the Vandals but not the Lugii.{{sfn|Berndt|2010|p=549}} [[Walter Pohl]] and [[Walter Goffart]] have noted that Ptolemy seems to distinguish the Silingi from the Lugii, and in the 2nd century the Hasdings, when they appear in the Roman record, are also distinguished from the Lugii.<ref>Pohl, ''Die Germanen'', p. 23; Goffart, ''Barbarian Tides'', p. 298, footnote 47.</ref>
[[Herwig Wolfram]] notes that "In all likelihood the Lugians and the Vandals were one cultic community that lived in the same region of the Oder in Silesia, where it was first under [[Celts|Celtic]] and then under Germanic domination."<ref name="Wolfram"/> This may account for the differentiation between the Celtic Lugii and their more Germanic successors the Vandals.

====Przeworsk culture====
{{Main|Przeworsk culture}}
In archaeology, the Vandals are associated with the Przeworsk culture, but the culture probably extended over several central and eastern European peoples. Their origin, ethnicity and linguistic affiliation are heavily debated.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Content_store/Sample_chapter/1405117141/Todd_sample%20chapter_The%20early%20germans.pdf |title=Land and People, p. 25 |access-date=July 30, 2005 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070926222716/http://www.blackwellpublishing.com/content/BPL_Images/Content_store/Sample_chapter/1405117141/Todd_sample%20chapter_The%20early%20germans.pdf |archive-date=September 26, 2007 }}</ref><ref name=Merrils>{{harvnb|Merrills|2004|pp=32–33}}</ref><ref name=Todd>{{harvnb|Todd|2009|p=25}}</ref> The bearers of the Przeworsk culture mainly practiced [[cremation]] and occasionally inhumation.<ref name="Todd"/>

====Language====
{{main|Vandalic language}}
Very little is known about the [[Vandalic language]] itself, but it is believed to be of the extinct [[East Germanic languages|East Germanic]] linguistic branch, like Gothic. The Goths left behind the only text corpus of the East Germanic language type, especially a [[Gothic Bible|4th-century translation of the Gospels.]]<ref>{{harvnb|Mallory|Adams|1997|pp=217, 301}}</ref>

===Introduction into the Roman Empire===
[[File:Roman Empire 125.png|thumb|left|upright=1.15|The Roman empire under [[Hadrian]] (ruled 117–38), showing the location of the Vandilii East Germanic tribes, then inhabiting the upper [[Vistula]] region (Poland).]]
In the 2nd century, two or three distinct Vandal peoples came to the attention of Roman authors, the [[Silingi]], the [[Hasdingi]], and possibly the [[Lacringi]], who appear together with the Hasdingi. Only the Silingi had been mentioned in early Roman works, and are associated with [[Silesia]].

These peoples appeared during the [[Marcomannic Wars]], which resulted in widespread destruction and the first invasion of Italy in the Roman Empire period.<ref name="EBGermanyAncientHistory">{{cite web|url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/231186/Germany/58075/The-press|title=Germany: Ancient History|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]]|publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]]|access-date=January 16, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130828160433/http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/231186/Germany/58075/The-press|archive-date=2013-08-28|url-status=live}}</ref> During the Marcomannic Wars (166–180) the [[Hasdingi]] (or Astingi), led by the kings Raus and Rapt (or Rhaus and Raptus) moved south, entering [[Dacia]] as allies of Rome.<ref name=Vandals_30>{{harvnb|Merrills|Miles|2010|p=30}}</ref> However they eventually caused problems in Dacia and moved further south, towards the lower [[Danube]] area. Together with the Hasdingi were the Lacringi, who were possibly also Vandals.<ref>Dio Cassius, [https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72*.html 72.12] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210221024915/https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Cassius_Dio/72%2A.html |date=2021-02-21 }}</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Merrills|Miles|2010|p=27}}</ref>

In about 271 AD the Roman Emperor [[Aurelian]] was obliged to protect the middle course of the Danube against Vandals. They made peace and stayed on the eastern bank of the Danube.<ref name="Vandals_30"/>

In 278, [[Zosimus (historian)|Zosimus]] reported that emperor [[Probus (emperor)|Probus]] had defeated the Vandals and Burgundians near a river (sometimes proposed to be the [[Lech (river)|Lech]], and sent many of them to Britain. During this same period, the 11th [[panegyric]] to [[Maximian]] delivered in 291, reported two different conflicts outside the empire wherein Burgundians were associated with [[Alamanni]], and other Vandals, probably Hasdingi in the Carpathian region, were associated with [[Gepids]].
[[File:026 Rekonstruktionsversuch wandalicher Trachten von dem Äußere Karpatensenken und Westbeskiden, 2 bis 3 Jh. PR DSC 1315 przeworsk.JPG|right|thumb|upright=0.9|Reconstruction of an Iron Age warrior's garments representing a Vandalic man, with his hair in a "[[Suebian knot]]" (160 AD), [[Archaeological Museum of Kraków]], Poland.]]

According to [[Jordanes]]' ''[[Getica (Jordanes)|Getica]]'', the Hasdingi came into conflict with the [[Goths]] around the time of [[Constantine the Great]]. At the time, these Vandals were living in lands later inhabited by the [[Gepids]], where they were surrounded "on the east [by] the Goths, on the west [by] the [[Marcomanni]], on the north [by] the [[Hermanduri]] and on the south [by] the Hister ([[Danube]])." The Vandals were attacked by the Gothic king [[Geberic]], and their king [[Visimar]] was killed.<ref name=Schutte>{{harvnb|Schütte|2013|pp=50–54}}</ref> The Vandals then migrated to neighbouring [[Pannonia]], where, after [[Constantine the Great]] (in about 330) granted them lands on the right bank of the Danube, they lived for the next sixty years.<ref name="Schutte"/><ref>Jordanes [http://www.romansonline.com/Src_Frame.asp?DocID=Gth_Goth_22 chapter 22] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105120230/http://www.romansonline.com/Src_Frame.asp?DocID=Gth_Goth_22 |date=2013-11-05 }}</ref>

In the late 4th century and early 5th, the famous ''[[magister militum]]'' [[Stilicho]] (died 408), the chief minister of the Emperor [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]], was described as being of Vandal descent. Vandals raided the Roman province of [[Raetia]] in the winter of 401/402. From this, historian [[Peter Heather]] concludes that at this time the Vandals were located in the region around the Middle and Upper Danube.<ref>{{harvnb|Heather|2005|p=195}}</ref> It is possible that such Middle Danubian Vandals were part of the Gothic king [[Radagaisus]]' invasion of Italy in 405–406 AD.<ref>{{harvnb|Merrills|Miles|2010|p=34}}</ref>

While the Hasdingian Vandals were already established in the Middle Danube for centuries, it is less clear where the Silingian Vandals had been living<ref>Goffart, ''Barbarian Tides'', ch. 5.</ref> though it may have been in [[Silesia]].<ref>The Barbarians: Warriors & Wars of the Dark Ages, Tim Newark (Blandford Press, 1985).</ref><ref>Andrew H. Merrills, "Vandals, Romans and Berbers: New Perspectives on Late Antique North Africa", 2004, [[Ashgate Publishing]], {{ISBN|0-7546-4145-7}} p. 34, ([https://books.google.com/books?id=xdnrTM_d1GkC&dq=silingi+silesia&pg=PA34 Google Books])</ref><ref>[[Jerzy Strzelczyk]], "Wandalowie i ich afrykańskie państwo" p. 59, Warszawa 1992.</ref>

===In Britannia===

In AD 278, Emperor Probus on defeating the Vandals and Burgundians, transferred many of them to Britain. It is unknown where they were settled, though [[Silchester]] seems to be a likely candidate. The city bears the name of the Silingi, is only one of six that existed in Roman Britain that did not survive the [[Sub-Roman]] era,<ref>Archaeological Fieldwork and Opportunities Bulletin. Archaeological Institute of America. 2002. p. 63.</ref> and appears to have been ritually cursed – likely by the Anglo-Saxons – before being abandoned.<ref>{{cite journal | doi=10.2307/526928 | jstor=526928 | title=Human Remains from the North Gate, Silchester: An 'Early' and a 'Late' Radiocarbon Date from the City | last1=Fulford | first1=Michael | journal=Britannia | year=2000 | volume=31 | pages=356–358 | pmid=16432945 | s2cid=33704958 }}</ref><ref>Clarke, S. 1997: ‘Abandonment, rubbish disposal and “special” deposits’, in Meadows, K., Lemke, C. and Heron, J. (eds), TRAC 96. Proceedings of the Sixth Annual Theoretical Roman Archaeology Conference Sheffield 1996, Oxford, 73–81.</ref>

===In Gaul===
In 405 AD the Vandals advanced from Pannonia travelling west along the Danube without much difficulty, but when they reached the Rhine, they met resistance from the [[Franks]], who populated and controlled Romanized regions in northern [[Gaul]]. According to the Frigeridus fragment cited by [[Gregory of Tours]], around 20,000 Vandals, including Godigisel himself, died in this [[Vandal-Frankish war]], but then with the help of the [[Alans]] they managed to defeat the Franks, and on December 31, 405<ref name="Goffart">{{cite book |last1=Goffart |first1=Walter |title=Barbarian Tides: The Migration Age and the Later Roman Empire |date=2006 |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-0-8122-3939-3 |pages=94–95}}</ref> the Vandals [[Crossing of the Rhine|crossed the Rhine]], probably while it was frozen, to invade Gaul, which they devastated terribly. Under Godigisel's son [[Gunderic]], the Vandals plundered their way westward and southward through [[Aquitaine]].<ref>{{EB1911|inline=1|wstitle=Vandals}}</ref>

===In Hispania===<!-- This section is linked from [[List of extinct states]] -->
[[File:Vandals Migration pt.gif|thumb|upright=1.3|Migrations of the Vandals from Scandinavia through Dacia, Gaul, Iberia, and into North Africa. Grey: Roman Empire.]]

On October 13, 409 they crossed the [[Pyrenees]] into the [[Iberian peninsula]]. There, the [[Hasdingi]] received land from the Romans, as [[foederati]], in [[Asturia]] (Northwest) and the [[Silingi]] in [[Hispania Baetica]] (South), while the [[Alans]] got lands in [[Lusitania]] (West) and the region around [[Carthago Nova]].<ref name=EB_Spain>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://global.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/557573/Spain/70357/Visigothic-Spain-to-c-500#ref587098 |title=Spain: Visigothic Spain to c. 500 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica Online]] |publisher=[[Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.]] |access-date=8 March 2014}}</ref> The [[Suebi]] also controlled part of [[Gallaecia]]. The [[Visigoths]], who invaded Iberia on the orders of the Romans before receiving lands in [[Septimania]] (Southern France), crushed the Silingi Vandals in 417 and the Alans in 418, killing the western Alan king [[Attaces]].<ref>Vasconcellos 1913, p.&nbsp;551</ref> The remainder of his people and the remnants of the Silingi, who were nearly wiped out, subsequently appealed to the Vandal king [[Gunderic]] to accept the Alan crown. Later Vandal kings in North Africa styled themselves ''Rex Wandalorum et Alanorum'' ("King of the Vandals and Alans"). In 419 AD the Hasdingi Vandals were [[Battle of the Nervasos Mountains|defeated]] by a joint Roman-Suebi coalition. Gunderic fled to [[Baetica]], where he was also proclaimed king of the Silingi Vandals. In 422, Gunderic decisively defeated a Roman-Suebi-Gothic coalition led by the Roman [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patrician]] [[Castinus]] at the [[Battle of Tarraco]].<ref name="JaquesTarraco">{{harvnb|Jaques|2007c|p=999}}</ref><ref name="MM50">{{harvnb|Merrills|Miles|2010|p=50}}</ref> It is likely that many Roman and Gothic troops deserted to Gunderic following the battle.<ref name="MM50"/> For the next five years, according to [[Hydatius]], Gunderic created widespread havoc in the western [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]].<ref name="MM50"/> In 425, the Vandals pillaged the [[Balearic Islands]], [[Hispania]] and [[Mauritania (Roman province)|Mauritania]], sacking [[Cartagena, Spain|Cartagena]] and [[Seville]] in 425.<ref name="MM50"/> The capture of the maritime city of Cartagena enabled the Vandals to engage in widespread naval activities.<ref name="MM50"/> In 428 Gunderic captured Seville for a second time but died while laying siege to the city's church.<ref name="MM50"/> He was succeeded by his half-brother [[Genseric]], who although he was [[Legitimacy (family law)|illegitimate]] (his mother was a slave) had held a prominent position at the Vandal court, rising to the throne unchallenged.<ref>{{harvnb|Merrills|Miles|2010|pp=49–50}}</ref> In 429, the Vandals departed Spain which remained almost totally in Roman hands until 439, when the Sueves, confined to Gallaecia moved south and captured [[Emerita Augusta]] (Mérida), the see city of Roman administration for the whole peninsula.<ref>''Late Roman Spain and its Cities'', Michael Kulikowsi, 2004, pp. 173–180 {{ISBN|0-8018-7978-7}}</ref>

Genseric is often regarded by historians as the most able barbarian leader of the Migration Period.<ref name="Frasseto173">{{harvnb|Frassetto|2003|p=173}}</ref> [[Michael Frassetto]] writes that he probably contributed more to the destruction of Rome than any of his contemporaries.<ref name="Frasseto173"/> Although the barbarians controlled Hispania, they still comprised a tiny minority among a much larger [[Romanization of Hispania|Hispano-Roman]] population, approximately 200,000 out of 6,000,000.<ref name="EB_Spain"/> Shortly after seizing the throne, Genseric was attacked from the rear by a large force of [[Suebi]] under the command of [[Heremigarius]] who had managed to take [[Lusitania]].<ref name=celtiberia>{{cite web |url = http://www.celtiberia.net/articulo.asp?id=1671 |title = Breve historia del reino suevo de Gallaecia (1) |access-date = 11 August 2010 |author = Cossue |date = 28 November 2005 |publisher = Celtiberia.net |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20120107022825/http://celtiberia.net/articulo.asp?id=1671 |archive-date = 2012-01-07 |url-status = live  |language= es}}</ref> This Suebi army was [[Battle of Mérida (428)|defeated]] near [[Mérida, Spain|Mérida]] and its leader [[Hermigarius]] drowned in the [[Guadiana]] River while trying to flee.<ref name="celtiberia"/>

It is possible that the [[Name of Andalusia|name ''Al-Andalus'']] (and its derivative ''[[Andalusia]]'') is derived from the Arabic adoption of the name of the Vandals.<ref>{{harvnb|Mokhtar|1981|p=281}} (Vol. 2)</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Burke|1900|p=410}} (Vol. 1)</ref>

===Kingdom in North Africa===
==== Establishment ====
{{main|Vandal Kingdom|Vandalic conquest of Roman Africa}}
[[File:Vandal Kingdom at its maximum extent in the 470s.png|thumb|upright=1.35|right|The Vandal Kingdom at its greatest extent in the 470s]]
[[File:Bonifatius Comes Africae 422-431CE.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|Coin of [[Bonifacius]] ''Comes Africae'' (422–431 CE), who was defeated by the Vandals.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=153210 |title=CNG Coins |access-date=2017-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170810171332/https://www.cngcoins.com/Coin.aspx?CoinID=153210 |archive-date=2017-08-10 |url-status=live }}</ref> Legends: DOMINUS NOSTRIS / CARTAGINE.]]
The Vandals under Genseric (also known as Geiseric) [[Vandalic conquest of Roman Africa|crossed to Africa in 429]].<ref name="Collins 124">{{harvnb|Collins|2000|p=124}}</ref> Although numbers are unknown and some historians debate the validity of estimates, based on Procopius' assertion that the Vandals and Alans numbered 80,000 when they moved to North Africa,<ref>[[Procopius]] '' [[Procopius#The Wars of Justinian|Wars]]'' 3.5.18–19 in {{harvnb|Heather|2005|p=512}}</ref> Peter Heather estimates that they could have fielded an army of around 15,000–20,000.<ref>{{harvnb|Heather|2005|pp=197–198}}</ref>

According to Procopius, the Vandals came to Africa at the request of [[Bonifacius]], the military ruler of the region.<ref>[[Procopius]] ''[[Procopius#The Wars of Justinian|Wars]]'' 3.5.23–24 in {{harvnb|Collins|2000|p=124}}</ref> Seeking to establish himself as an independent ruler in Africa or even become Roman Emperor, Bonifacius had defeated several Roman attempts to subdue him, until he was mastered by the newly appointed Gothic [[count]] of Africa, [[Sigisvult]], who captured both [[Hippo Regius]] and [[Carthage]].<ref name="Frasseto173"/> It is possible that Bonifacius had sought Genseric as an ally against Sigisvult, promising him a part of Africa in return.<ref name="Frasseto173"/>

Advancing eastwards along the coast, the Vandals were confronted on the [[Numidia]]n border in May–June 430 by Bonifacius. Negotiations broke down, and Bonifacius was soundly defeated.<ref name="MM53">{{harvnb|Merrills|Miles|2010|pp=53–55}}</ref><ref name="Reynolds">{{harvnb|Reynolds|2011|pp=130–131}}</ref> Bonifacius subsequently barricaded himself inside Hippo Regius with the Vandals [[Siege of Hippo Regius|besieging]] the city.<ref name="Collins 124"/> Inside, [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] and his priests prayed for relief from the invaders, knowing full well that the fall of the city would spell [[conversion or death]] for many Roman Christians.{{citation needed|date=March 2017}}<!-- conversion to what? -->

On 28 August 430, three months into the siege, St. Augustine (who was 75 years old) died,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02084a.htm |title=Newadvent.org |access-date=2009-05-18 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020030610/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02084a.htm |archive-date=2017-10-20 |url-status=live }}</ref> perhaps from starvation or stress, as the wheat fields outside the city lay dormant and unharvested. The death of Augustine shocked the Regent of the [[Western Roman Empire]], [[Galla Placidia]], who feared the consequences if her realm lost its most important source of grain.<ref name="Reynolds"/> She raised a new army in Italy and convinced her nephew in [[Constantinople]], the [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Roman Emperor]] [[Theodosius II]], to send an army to North Africa led by [[Aspar]].<ref name="Reynolds"/>

Around July–August 431, Genseric raised the siege of Hippo Regius,<ref name="MM53"/> which enabled Bonifacius to retreat from Hippo Regius to [[Carthage]], where he was joined by Aspar's army. During the summer of 432, Genseric soundly defeated the joint forces of both Bonifacius and Aspar, which enabled him to seize Hippo Regius unopposed.<ref name="Reynolds"/> Genseric and Aspar subsequently negotiated a peace treaty of some sorts.<ref name="MM53"/> Upon seizing Hippo Regius, Genseric made it the first capital of the Vandal kingdom.<ref>{{harvnb|Merrills|Miles|2010|p=60}}</ref>

The Romans and the Vandals concluded a treaty in 435 giving the Vandals control of the Mauretania and the western half of Numidia. Genseric chose to break the treaty in 439 when he invaded the province of [[Africa Proconsularis]] and [[Battle of Carthage (439)|seized]] Carthage on October 19.<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|2000|pp=124–125}}</ref> The city was captured without a fight; the Vandals entered the city while most of the inhabitants were attending the races at the hippodrome. Genseric made it his capital, and styled himself the King of the Vandals and [[Alans]], to denote the inclusion of the Alans of northern Africa into his alliance.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} His forces also occupied [[Sardinia]], [[Corsica]] and the [[Balearic Islands]]. His siege of Palermo in 440 was a failure as was the second attempt to invade Sicily near Agrigento in 442 (the Vandals occupied the island from 468 to 476 when it was ceded to Odovacer).<ref>J.B. Bury, ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', Dover Vol. I. pp. 254, 258, 410 {{LCCN|5811273}}</ref> Historian Cameron suggests that the new Vandal rule may not have been unwelcomed by the population of North Africa as the great landowners were generally unpopular.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2000|pp=553–554}}</ref>

The impression given by ancient sources such as [[Victor Vitensis|Victor of Vita]], [[Quodvultdeus]], and [[Fulgentius of Ruspe]] was that the Vandal take-over of Carthage and North Africa led to widespread destruction. However, recent archaeological investigations have challenged this assertion. Although Carthage's Odeon was destroyed, the street pattern remained the same and some public buildings were renovated. The political centre of Carthage was the Byrsa Hill. New industrial centres emerged within towns during this period.<ref>{{harvnb|Merrills|2004|p=10}}</ref> Historian Andy Merrills uses the large amounts of [[African Red Slip]] ware discovered across the Mediterranean dating from the Vandal period of North Africa to challenge the assumption that the Vandal rule of North Africa was a time of economic instability.<ref>{{harvnb|Merrills|2004|p=11}}</ref> When the Vandals raided Sicily in 440, the Western Roman Empire was too preoccupied with war with Gaul to react. Theodosius II, emperor of the Eastern Roman Empire, dispatched an expedition to deal with the Vandals in 441; however, it only progressed as far as Sicily. The Western Empire under [[Valentinian III]] secured peace with the Vandals in 442.<ref name="Collins 125">{{harvnb|Collins|2000|p=125}}</ref> Under the treaty the Vandals gained [[Byzacena]], [[Tripolitania]], and the eastern half of Numidia, and were confirmed in  control of Proconsular Africa<ref name="Camerson 553">{{harvnb|Cameron|2000|p=553}}</ref> as well as the Vandal Kingdom as the first [[Barbarian kingdoms|barbarian kingdom]] was officially recognized as an independent kingdom in former Roman territory instead of [[foederati]].<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IjSqCwAAQBAJ&q=Vandals++treaty++442+++first++independent&pg=PA64|title=Christianity in Roman Africa: The Development of Its Practices and Beliefs– Google Knihy|date=2014|access-date=2016-12-25|isbn=978-0-8028-6931-9|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161226060050/https://books.google.sk/books?id=IjSqCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64&lpg=PA64|archive-date=2016-12-26|url-status=live|last1=Patout Burns|first1=J.|last2=Jensen|first2=Robin M.|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company }}</ref> The Empire retained western Numidia and the two Mauretanian provinces until 455.

====Sack of Rome====
{{Main|Sack of Rome (455)}}
[[File:Genseric sacking rome 456.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|right|''The Sack of Rome'', [[Karl Briullov]], 1833–1836]]
During the next thirty-five years, with a large fleet, Genseric looted the coasts of the Eastern and Western Empires. Vandal activity in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]] was so substantial that the sea's name in [[Old English]] was ''Wendelsæ'' (i. e. Sea of the Vandals).<ref>{{cite dictionary|url=http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=Mediterranean&allowed_in_frame=0|title=Mediterranean|dictionary=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]]|access-date=12 April 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413143410/http://etymonline.com/index.php?term=Mediterranean&allowed_in_frame=0|archive-date=2014-04-13|url-status=dead}}</ref> After [[Attila the Hun]]'s death, however, the Romans could afford to turn their attention back to the Vandals, who were in control of some of the richest lands of their former empire.

In an effort to bring the Vandals into the fold of the Empire, [[Valentinian III]] offered his daughter's hand in marriage to Genseric's son. Before this treaty could be carried out, however, politics again played a crucial part in the blunders of Rome. [[Petronius Maximus]] killed [[Valentinian III]] and claimed the Western throne. Petronius then forced Valentinian III's widow, empress [[Licinia Eudoxia]], to marry him.<ref>Ralph W. Mathisen, Petronius Maximus (17 March  – 22 May 455)</ref> Diplomacy between the two factions broke down, and in 455 with a letter from Licinia Eudoxia, begging Genseric's son to rescue her, the Vandals took Rome, along with the Empress and her daughters [[Eudocia (daughter of Valentinian III)|Eudocia]] and [[Placidia]].

The chronicler [[Prosper of Aquitaine]]<ref>[[Prosper of Aquitaine|Prosper's]] account of the event was followed by his continuator in the 6th century, [[Victor of Tunnuna]], a great admirer of Leo quite willing to adjust a date or bend a point (Steven Muhlberger, "Prosper's ''[[Epitoma Chronicon]]'': was there an edition of 443?" ''Classical Philology'' '''81'''.3 (July 1986), pp.&nbsp;240–244).</ref> offers the only fifth-century report that, on 2 June 455, Pope [[Pope Leo I|Leo the Great]] received Genseric and implored him to abstain from murder and destruction by fire, and to be satisfied with pillage. Whether the pope's influence saved Rome is, however, questioned. The Vandals departed with countless valuables.<!-- this possibility is not attested anywhere: including the spoils of the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] booty brought to Rome by [[Titus]]. --> Eudoxia and her daughter Eudocia were taken to North Africa.<ref name="Camerson 553"/>

====Consolidation====
[[File:Europe and the Near East at 476 AD.png|thumb|260px|[[Barbarian kingdoms]] and tribes after the end of the Western Roman Empire in 476]]
In 456 a Vandal fleet of 60 ships threatening both Gaul and Italy was ambushed and defeated at [[Battle of Agrigentum (456)|Agrigentum]] and [[Battle of Corsica|Corsica]] by the Western Roman general [[Ricimer]].<ref>{{harvnb|Jaques|2007a|p=264}}</ref> In 457 a mixed Vandal-Berber army returning with loot from a raid in [[Campania]] were soundly [[Battle of Garigliano (457)|defeated]] in a surprise attack by Western Emperor Majorian at the mouth of the [[Garigliano]] river.<ref>{{harvnb|Jaques|2007b|p=383}}</ref>

{{Main article|Vandal War (461-468)}}
As a result of the Vandal sack of Rome and piracy in the [[Mediterranean Sea|Mediterranean]], it became important to the Roman Empire to destroy the Vandal kingdom. In 460, [[Majorian]] launched an expedition against the Vandals, but was defeated at the [[Battle of Cartagena (461)|Battle of Cartagena]]. In 468 the Western and Eastern Roman empires launched an enormous expedition against the Vandals under the command of [[Basiliscus]], which reportedly was composed of 100,000 soldiers and 1,000 ships. The Vandals defeated the invaders at the [[Battle of Cap Bon (468)|Battle of Cap Bon]], capturing the Western fleet, and destroying the Eastern through the use of [[fire ship]]s.<ref name="Collins 125"/> Following up the attack, the Vandals tried to invade the [[Peloponnese]], but were driven back by the [[Maniots]] at Kenipolis with heavy losses.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos21">{{harvnb|Greenhalgh|Eliopoulos|1985|p=21}}</ref> In retaliation, the Vandals took 500&nbsp;hostages at [[Zakynthos]], hacked them to pieces and threw the pieces overboard on the way to Carthage.<ref name="Greenhalgh and Eliopoulos21"/> In 469 the Vandals gained control of Sicily but were forced by [[Odoacer]] to relinquish it in 477 except for the western port of Lilybaeum (lost in 491 after a failed attempt on their part to re-take the island).<ref>J.B. Bury, ''History of the Later Roman Empire'', 1958 edition, pp. 254, 327, 410</ref>

In the 470s, the Romans abandoned their policy of war against the Vandals. The Western general [[Ricimer]] reached a treaty with them,<ref name="Collins 125"/> and in 476 Genseric was able to conclude a "perpetual peace" with Constantinople. Relations between the two states assumed a veneer of normality.<ref>{{harvnb|Bury|1923|p=125}}</ref> From 477 onwards, the Vandals produced their own coinage, restricted to bronze and silver low-denomination coins. The high-denomination imperial money was retained, demonstrating in the words of Merrills "reluctance to usurp the imperial prerogative".<ref>{{harvnb|Merrills|2004|pp=11–12}}</ref>

Although the Vandals had fended off attacks from the Romans and established hegemony over the islands of the western Mediterranean, they were less successful in their conflict with the [[Berbers]]. Situated south of the Vandal kingdom, the Berbers inflicted two major defeats on the Vandals in the period 496–530.<ref name="Collins 125"/>

====Domestic religious tensions====
[[File:Vandal Kingdom Hilderic Denarius.jpg|thumb|A ''[[denarius]]'' of the reign of [[Hilderic]]. Legends: D[OMINUS] N[OSTRIS] HILDIRIX REX / KART[A]G[INE] FELIX.]]

Differences between the [[Arianism|Arian]] Vandals and their [[Trinity|Trinitarian]] subjects (including both Catholics and [[Donatist]]s) were a constant source of tension in their African state. Catholic bishops were exiled or killed by Genseric and laymen were excluded from office and frequently suffered confiscation of their property.<ref>{{harvnb|Collins|2000|pp=125–126}}</ref> He protected his Catholic subjects when his relations with Rome and Constantinople were friendly, as during the years 454–457, when the Catholic community at Carthage, being without a head, elected Deogratias bishop. The same was also the case during the years 476–477 when Bishop Victor of [[Cartenna]] sent him, during a period of peace, a sharp refutation of Arianism and suffered no punishment.<ref name="Catholic encyclopedia"/> Huneric, Genseric's successor, issued edicts against Catholics in 483 and 484 in an effort to marginalise them and make Arianism the primary religion in North Africa.<ref>{{harvnb|Cameron|2000|p=555}}</ref> Generally most Vandal kings, except [[Hilderic]], persecuted Trinitarian Christians to a greater or lesser extent, banning conversion for Vandals, exiling bishops and generally making life difficult for Trinitarians.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}

====Decline====
According to the 1913 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'': "Genseric, one of the most powerful personalities of the "era of the Migrations", died on 25&nbsp;January 477, at the great age of around 88 years. According to the law of succession which he had promulgated, the oldest male member of the royal house was to succeed. Thus he was succeeded by his son [[Huneric]] (477–484), who at first tolerated Catholics, owing to his fear of Constantinople, but after 482 began to persecute [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]] and Catholics."<ref name="Catholic encyclopedia">{{harvnb|Löffler|1912}}</ref>

[[Gunthamund]] (484–496), his cousin and successor, sought internal peace with the Catholics and ceased persecution once more. Externally, the Vandal power had been declining since Genseric's death, and Gunthamund lost early in his reign all but a small wedge of western Sicily to the [[Ostrogoth]]s which was lost in 491 and had to withstand increasing pressure from the [[wikt:autochthonous|autochthonous]] [[Moors]].

According to the 1913 ''[[Catholic Encyclopedia]]'': "While [[Thrasamund]] (496–523), owing to his religious fanaticism, was hostile to Catholics, he contented himself with bloodless persecutions".<ref name="Catholic encyclopedia"/>

====Turbulent end====
{{Main|Vandalic War}}
[[File:Meister von San Vitale in Ravenna 013.jpg|thumb|right|[[Belisarius]] may be this bearded figure on the right of Emperor [[Justinian I]] in the mosaic in the [[Basilica of San Vitale|Church of San Vitale]], [[Ravenna]], which celebrates the reconquest of Italy by the [[Byzantine army]] under the skillful leadership of Belisarius]]
[[Hilderic]] (523–530) was the Vandal king most tolerant towards the [[Catholic Church]]. He granted it religious freedom; consequently, Catholic synods were once more held in North Africa. However, he had little interest in war, and left it to a family member, [[Hoamer]]. When Hoamer suffered a defeat against the [[Moors]], the [[Arianism|Arian]] faction within the royal family led a revolt, raising the banner of national Arianism, and his cousin [[Gelimer]] (530–534) became king. Hilderic, Hoamer and their relatives were thrown into prison.<ref name="Bury 1923 131">{{harvnb|Bury|1923|p=131}}</ref>

[[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]] Emperor [[Justinian I]] declared war, with the stated intention of restoring Hilderic to the Vandal throne. The deposed Hilderic was murdered in 533 on Gelimer's orders.<ref name="Bury 1923 131"/> While an expedition was en route, a large part of the Vandal army and navy was led by [[Tzazo]], Gelimer's brother, to Sardinia to deal with a rebellion. As a result, the armies of the Byzantine Empire commanded by [[Belisarius]] were able to land unopposed {{convert|10|mi}} from Carthage. Gelimer quickly assembled an army,<ref name="Collins 126">{{harvnb|Collins|2000|p=126}}</ref> and met Belisarius at the [[Battle of Ad Decimum]]; the Vandals were winning the battle until Gelimer's brother [[Ammatas]] and nephew Gibamund fell in battle. Gelimer then lost heart and fled. Belisarius quickly took Carthage while the surviving Vandals fought on.<ref>{{harvnb|Bury|1923|pp=133–135}}</ref>

On December 15, 533, Gelimer and Belisarius clashed again at the [[Battle of Tricamarum]], some {{convert|20|mi|km|0}} from Carthage. Again, the Vandals fought well but broke, this time when Gelimer's brother [[Tzazo]] fell in battle. Belisarius quickly advanced to [[Hippo Regius|Hippo]], second city of the Vandal Kingdom, and in 534 Gelimer surrendered to the Byzantine conqueror, ending the Kingdom of the Vandals.
[[File:Vandal cavalryman, c. AD 500, from a mosaic pavement at Bordj Djedid near Carthage.jpg|thumb|Vandal cavalryman, ''c.'' AD 500, from a [[mosaic]] pavement at [[Zaghouan Aqueduct#Cistern of Bordj Djedid|Bordj Djedid]] near [[Carthage]]]]
North Africa, comprising north Tunisia and eastern Algeria in the Vandal period, became a Roman province again, from which the Vandals were [[deportation|expelled]]. Many Vandals went to [[Saldae]] (today called [[Béjaïa]] in north Algeria) where they integrated themselves with the Berbers. Many others were put into imperial service or fled to the two Gothic kingdoms ([[Ostrogothic Kingdom]] and [[Visigothic Kingdom]]).  Some Vandal women married Byzantine soldiers and settled in north Algeria and Tunisia. The choicest Vandal warriors were formed into five cavalry regiments, known as ''Vandali Iustiniani'', stationed on the [[Roman-Persian Wars|Persian]] frontier. Some entered the private service of Belisarius.<ref>{{harvnb|Bury|1923|pp=124–150}}</ref> The 1913 ''Catholic Encyclopedia'' states that "Gelimer was honourably treated and received large estates in [[Galatia]]. He was also offered the rank of a patrician but had to refuse it because he was not willing to change his [[Arianism|Arian faith]]".<ref name="Catholic encyclopedia"/> In the words of historian Roger Collins: "The remaining Vandals were then shipped back to Constantinople to be absorbed into the imperial army. As a distinct ethnic unit they disappeared".<ref name="Collins 126"/> Some of the few Vandals remained at North Africa while more migrated back to Spain.<ref name="Bam"/> In 546 the Vandalic [[Dux]] of [[Numidia (Roman province)|Numidia]], [[Guntarith]], defected from the Byzantines and raised a rebellion with Moorish support. He was able to capture Carthage, but was assassinated by the Byzantines shortly afterwards.{{cn|date=September 2022}}

==List of kings==
Known kings of the Vandals:{{Citation needed|date=September 2011}}
* [[Wisimar]] (d. 335)
* [[Godigisel]] (359–406)
* [[Gunderic]] (407–428)
* [[Gaiseric]] (428–477)
* [[Huneric]] (477–484)
* [[Gunthamund]] (484–496)
* [[Thrasamund]] (496–523)
* [[Hilderic]] (523–530)
* [[Gelimer]] (530–534)

==Family tree of the kings of Vandals==
{{familytree/start}}
{{familytree| | | | | Wis | | | | | | God |Wis=[[Wisimar]]<br />king of Hasdingi Vandals|God=[[Godigisel]]<br />king of Vandals}}
{{familytree| | | | | | | | | |,|-|-|-|(| }} 
{{familytree| Val | | | | | | Gun | | Gen |Val=''[[Valentinian III]]<br />West Roman Emperor''|Gun=[[Gunderic]]<br />king of Vandals, Alans|Gen=[[Gaiseric]]<br />king of Vandals, Alans}}
{{familytree| |!| | | |,|-|-|-|-|-|-|-|(| }}
{{familytree| Eud |~| Hun | | | | | | Gnt |Eud=[[Eudocia (daughter of Valentinian III)|Eudocia]] of<br />[[Valentinianic dynasty]]|Hun=[[Huneric]]<br />king of Vandals, Alans|Gnt=[[Gento (son of Genseric)|Gento]]<br />prince}}
{{familytree| | | | | |!| | | |,|-|-|-|+|-|-|-|.| | | |,|-|-|-|.| }}
{{familytree| | | | | Hil | | Gun | | Gel | | Thr |~| Aml | | The |Hil=[[Hilderic]]<br />king of Vandals, Alans|Thr=[[Thrasamund]]<br />king of Vandals, Alans|Gun=[[Gunthamund]]<br />king of Vandals, Alans|Gel=Gelarius<br />prince|Aml=[[Amalafrida]] of<br />[[Amal dynasty]]|The=''[[Theodoric the Great]]<br />king of Ostrogoths''}}
{{familytree| | | | | | | | | | | | | |)|-|-|-|.| }}
{{familytree| | | | | | | | | | | | | Gmr | | Amt |Gmr=[[Gelimer]]<br />king of Vandals, Alans|Amt=[[Ammatus]]<br />general}}
{{familytree/end}}

==Latin literacy==
All Vandals that modern historians know about were able to speak [[Latin]], which also remained the official language of the Vandal administration (most of the staff seem to have been native Berber or Roman).<ref>{{harvnb|Wickham|2009|p=77}}</ref> Levels of literacy in the ancient world are uncertain, but writing was integral to administration and business. Studies of literacy in North Africa have tended to centre around the administration, which was limited to the social elite. However, the majority of the population of North Africa did not live in urban centres.<ref>{{harvnb|Conant|2004|pp=199–200}}</ref>

Judith George explains that "Analysis of the [Vandal] poems in their context holds up a mirror to the ways and values of the times".<ref name="George 138">{{harvnb|George|2004|p=138}}</ref> Very little work of the poets of Vandal North Africa survives, but what does is found in the ''[[Latin Anthology]]''; apart from their names, little is known about the poets themselves, not even when they were writing. Their work drew on earlier Roman traditions. Modern scholars generally hold the view that the Vandals allowed the Romans in North Africa to carry on with their way of life with only occasional interference.<ref>{{harvnb|George|2004|pp=138–139}}</ref>

==Legacy==
{{further|Vandalism}}

[[File:Heinrich Leutemann, Plünderung Roms durch die Vandalen (c. 1860–1880).jpg|right|thumb|The Vandals' traditional reputation: a coloured steel engraving of the Sack of Rome (455) by [[Heinrich Leutemann]] (1824–1904), c. 1860–80]]
Since the Middle Ages, kings of Denmark were styled "[[King of Denmark]], the [[King of the Goths|Goths]] and the [[King of the Wends|Wends]]", the Wends being a group of [[West Slavs]] formerly living in [[Mecklenburg]] and eastern [[Holstein]] in modern Germany. The title "King of the Wends" is translated as ''vandalorum rex'' in Latin. The title was shortened to "King of Denmark" in 1972.<ref>{{cite book|author=Norman Berdichevsky|title=An Introduction to Danish Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ewGNwBvD2gcC&pg=PA163|access-date=3 October 2012|year= 2011|publisher=McFarland|isbn=978-0-7864-6401-2|page=163}}</ref> Starting in 1540, Swedish kings (following Denmark) were styled ''Suecorum, Gothorum et Vandalorum Rex'' ("King of the [[Swedes (Germanic tribe)|Swedes]], [[Geats]], and [[King of the Wends|Wends]]").<ref>{{cite book |author=J. Guinchard |title=Sweden: Historical and statistical handbook |year=1914 |location=Stockholm |publisher=P. A. Norstedt & Söner |page=188 |url=https://runeberg.org/sweden14/1/0218.html |access-date=2012-10-03 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130526225136/http://runeberg.org/sweden14/1/0218.html |archive-date=2013-05-26 |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Carl XVI Gustaf]] dropped the title in 1973 and now styles himself simply as "[[King of Sweden]]".

The modern term ''[[vandalism]]'' stems from the Vandals' reputation as the barbarian people who sacked and looted Rome in AD 455. The Vandals were probably not any more destructive than other invaders of ancient times, but writers who idealized Rome often blamed them for its destruction. For example, English [[Restoration literature|Restoration]] poet [[John Dryden]] wrote, ''Till Goths, and Vandals, a rude Northern race, / Did all the matchless Monuments deface''.<ref>Dryden, John, "To Sir Godfrey Kneller", 1694. Dryden also wrote of Renaissance Italy ''reviving from the trance/Of Vandal, Goth and Monkish ignorance.'' ("To the Earl of Roscommon", 1680).</ref>
The term ''Vandalisme'' was coined in 1794 by [[Henri Grégoire]], bishop of [[Blois]], to describe the destruction of artwork following the [[French Revolution]]. The term was quickly adopted across Europe. This new use of the term was important in colouring the perception of the Vandals from later Late Antiquity, popularizing the pre-existing idea that they were a barbaric group with a taste for destruction. Vandals and other "[[barbarian]]" groups had long been blamed for the fall of the [[Roman Empire]] by writers and historians.<ref>{{harvnb|Merrills|Miles|2010|pp=9–10}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Migrations period]]
* [[Timeline of Germanic kingdoms in the Iberian Peninsula]]
* [[Vandal War (439-442)|Vandal War (439–442)]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

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'''Attribution:'''
* {{CE1913| |first=Klemens |last=Löffler |wstitle=Vandals |volume=15}}

==Further reading==
* Blume, Mary. [http://www.iht.com/articles/2001/08/25/blume_ed3_.php# "Vandals Exhibit Sacks Some Cultural Myths"], [http://www.iht.com/ ''International Herald Tribune''], August&nbsp;25, 2001.
* Christian Courtois: Les Vandales et l'Afrique. Paris 1955
* Clover, Frank M: The Late Roman West and the Vandals. Aldershot 1993 (Collected studies series 401), {{ISBN|0-86078-354-5}}
* Die Vandalen: die Könige, die Eliten, die Krieger, die Handwerker. Publikation zur Ausstellung "Die Vandalen"; eine Ausstellung der Maria-Curie-Sklodowska-Universität Lublin und des Landesmuseums Zamość&nbsp;... ; Ausstellung im [[Weserrenaissance]]-Schloss Bevern&nbsp;... Nordstemmen 2003. {{ISBN|3-9805898-6-2}}
* [[John Julius Norwich]], ''Byzantium: The Early Centuries''
* F. Papencordt's Geschichte der vandalischen Herrschaft in Afrika
* Guido M. Berndt, Konflikt und Anpassung: Studien zu Migration und Ethnogenese der Vandalen (Historische Studien 489, Husum 2007), {{ISBN|978-3-7868-1489-4}}.
* Hans-Joachim Diesner: Vandalen. In: Paulys Realencyclopädie der class. Altertumswissenschaft (RE Suppl. X, 1965), S. 957–992.
* Hans-Joachim Diesner: Das Vandalenreich. Aufstieg und Untergang. Stuttgart 1966. 5.
* Helmut Castritius: Die Vandalen. Etappen einer Spurensuche. Stuttgart u.a. 2007.
* Ivor J. Davidson, ''A Public Faith'', Chapter 11, ''Christians and Barbarians'', Volume 2 of Baker History of the Church, 2005, {{ISBN|0-8010-1275-9}}
* L'Afrique vandale et Byzantine. Teil 1. Turnhout 2002 (Antiquité Tardive 10), {{ISBN|2-503-51275-5}}.
* L'Afrique vandale et Byzantine. Teil 2, Turnhout 2003 (Antiquité Tardive 11), {{ISBN|2-503-52262-9}}.
* Lord Mahon [[Philip Henry Stanhope, 5th Earl Stanhope]], ''The Life of Belisarius'', 1848. Reprinted 2006 (unabridged with editorial comments) Evolution Publishing, {{ISBN|1-889758-67-1}}. [http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html Evolpub.com] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150607154228/http://www.evolpub.com/CRE/CREseries.html |date=2015-06-07 }}
* Ludwig Schmidt: Geschichte der Wandalen. 2. Auflage, München 1942.
* [[Pauly-Wissowa]]
* Pierre Courcelle: Histoire littéraire des grandes invasions germaniques. 3rd edition Paris 1964 (Collection des études Augustiniennes: Série antiquité, 19).
* Roland Steinacher: Vandalen – Rezeptions- und Wissenschaftsgeschichte. In: Hubert Cancik (Hrsg.): Der Neue Pauly, Stuttgart 2003, Band 15/3, S. 942–946, {{ISBN|3-476-01489-4}}.
* Roland Steinacher: Wenden, Slawen, Vandalen. Eine frühmittelalterliche pseudologische Gleichsetzung und ihr Nachleben bis ins 18. Jahrhundert. In: W. Pohl (Hrsg.): Auf der Suche nach den Ursprüngen. Von der Bedeutung des frühen Mittelalters (Forschungen zur Geschichte des Mittelalters 8), Wien 2004, S. 329–353. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080625100046/http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/%7Ec61705/Steinacher,%20WendenSlawenVandalen%202004.pdf Uibk.ac.at]
* Stefan Donecker; Roland Steinacher, Rex Vandalorum – The Debates on Wends and Vandals in Swedish Humanism as an Indicator for Early Modern Patterns of Ethnic Perception, in: ed. Robert Nedoma, Der Norden im Ausland – das Ausland im Norden. Formung und Transformation von Konzepten und Bildern des Anderen vom Mittelalter bis heute (Wiener Studien zur Skandinavistik 15, Wien 2006) 242–252. [https://web.archive.org/web/20120227195324/http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c61705/Donecker-Steinacher.pdf Uibk.ac.at]
* Victor of Vita, ''History of the Vandal Persecution'' {{ISBN|0-85323-127-3}}. Written 484.
* Walter Pohl: Die Völkerwanderung. Eroberung und Integration. Stuttgart 2002, S. 70–86, {{ISBN|3-17-015566-0}}.
* Westermann, ''Grosser Atlas zur Weltgeschichte'' {{in lang|de}}
* [[Yves Modéran]]: Les Maures et l'Afrique romaine. 4e.–7e. siècle. Rom 2003 ([[Bibliothèque des Écoles françaises d'Athènes et de Rome]], 314), {{ISBN|2-7283-0640-0}}.
* Robert Kasperski, Ethnicity, ethnogenesis, and the Vandals: Some Remarks on a Theory of Emergence of the Barbarian Gens, „Acta Poloniae Historia” 112, 2015, pp.&nbsp;201–242.

==External links==
{{wiktionary|Vandals}}
{{wiktionary|vandal}}
{{Commons category}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071203100937/http://indoeuro.bizland.com/project/chron/europe3.gif Kingdom of the Vandals – location map]

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