View source for United States occupation of Nicaragua

{{Short description|1912–1933 occupation as part of the Banana Wars}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2014}}
{{Infobox military conflict
| partof            = the [[Banana Wars]]
| image             = U.S. Marines holding Sandino's Flag - Nicaragua 1932.jpg
| image_size        = 300
| caption           = United States Marines with the captured flag of [[Augusto C. Sandino]] in 1932
| date              = August 4, 1912 – January 2, 1933<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|day1=04|month1=08|year1=1912|day2=02|month2=01|year2=1933}})
* First Occupation: August 4, 1912 – August 4, 1925<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|day1=04|month1=08|year1=1912|day2=04|month2=08|year2=1925}})
* Second Occupation: May 7, 1926 – January 2, 1933<br />({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|day1=07|month1=05|year1=1926|day2=02|month2=01|year2=1933}})
| place             = [[Nicaragua]]
| result            = [[United States]] military victory<br>[[Democratic Party (Nicaragua)|Liberal Party]] political victory
* Change of regime in Nicaragua
* [[Great Depression]] marks US withdrawal (1933)
| combatant1        = {{flagcountry|United States|1912}}<br>{{flagcountry|Nicaragua|1908}}
| combatant2        = {{Flagdeco|Nicaragua|1908}} [[Democratic Party (Nicaragua)|Liberal Party]] (1912–1927)<br>{{flagicon image|Bandera sandinista.svg}} {{ill|Army in Defense of the National Sovereignty of Nicaragua|es|Ejército Defensor de la Soberanía Nacional}} (1927–1933)
| commander1        = {{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[William Henry Hudson Southerland]]<br>{{flagicon|United States|1912}} [[Smedley Butler]]
| commander2        = {{flagdeco|Nicaragua|1908}} [[Benjamín Zeledón]] (1912)<br>{{flagdeco|Nicaragua|1908}} [[Luis Mena (Nicaraguan politician)|Luis Mena]] (1912)<br>{{flagicon image|Bandera sandinista.svg}} [[Augusto César Sandino]] (1927–1933)
| casualties1       = '''First occupation (1912–1925)''':<br>7 killed (5 marines & 2 sailors)<br>16 marines wounded<br>(all in 1912)<ref>{{cite book|last=Boot|first=Max|title=The Savage Wars of Peace: Small Wars and the Rise of American Power|date=May 27, 2003|publisher=Basic Books|location=New York City|page=148}}</ref><br>'''Second occupation (1926–1933)''':<br>136 marines killed (32 killed-in-action, 15 died of wounds, and 5 murdered by [[mutiny|mutinous]] National Guardsmen)<ref name="Macaulay 239">{{cite book|last=Macaulay|first=Neill|title=The Sandino Affair|date=February 1998|publisher=Quadrangle Books|location=Chicago|page=239}}</ref><br>75 killed ([[National Guard (Nicaragua)|Nicaraguan National Guardsmen]])<ref name="Macaulay 239"/>
| casualties2       = '''First occupation (1912–1925)''':<br>Unknown<br>'''Second occupation (1926–1933)''':<br>1,115 Sandinista insurgents killed<ref>{{cite book|last=Macaulay|first=Neill|title=The Sandino Affair|date=February 1998|publisher=Quadrangle Books|location=Chicago|pages=239–240}}</ref>
| conflict          = 
}}
{{United States occupation of Nicaragua}}
{{Campaignbox Banana Wars}}

The '''United States occupation of Nicaragua''' from August 4, 1912, to January 2, 1933, was part of the [[Banana Wars]], when the [[U.S. military]] invaded various [[Latin America]]n countries from 1898 to 1934. The formal occupation began on August 4, 1912, even though there were various other assaults by the [[United States]] in [[Nicaragua]] throughout this period. [[Overseas interventions of the United States|American military interventions]] in Nicaragua were designed to stop any nation other than the [[United States of America]] from building a [[Nicaraguan Canal]].

Nicaragua assumed a quasi-[[protectorate]] status under the 1916 [[Bryan–Chamorro Treaty]]. President [[Herbert Hoover]] (1929–1933) opposed the relationship. On January 2, 1933, Hoover ended the American intervention.<ref>Andrew Glass, "Marines withdraw from Nicaragua, Jan. 2, 1933" ''Politico'' (2019) [https://www.politico.com/story/2019/01/02/this-day-in-politics-jan-2-1933-1077356]</ref>

==Conflicts in Nicaragua==
===Estrada's rebellion (1909)===
[[File:U.S. Marines and Colonel William P. Biddle.png|thumb|left|U.S. Marines leaving New York City in 1909 for deployment in Nicaragua. Then-Colonel [[William P. Biddle]], in charge of the detachment, is in civilian clothes at right.]]

In 1909 Nicaraguan President [[José Santos Zelaya]] of the [[Democratic Party (Nicaragua)|Liberal Party]] faced opposition from the [[Conservative Party (Nicaragua)|Conservative Party]], led by governor [[Juan José Estrada]] of [[Bluefields]] who received support from the U.S. government as a result of American entrepreneurs providing financial assistance to Estrada's rebellion in the hopes of gaining economic concessions after the rebellion's victory.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Banana Wars: United States in the Caribbean, 1898-1934|last=Langley|first=Lester D|publisher=Scholarly Resources Inc.|year=2002|isbn=0-8420-5046-9|location=Wilmington, DE|pages=56–58}}</ref> The United States had limited military presence in Nicaragua, having only one patrolling U.S. Navy ship off the coast of Bluefields, allegedly to protect the lives and interests of American citizens who lived there. The Conservative Party sought to overthrow Zelaya which led to Estrada's rebellion in December 1909. Two Americans, Leonard Groce and Lee Roy Cannon, were captured and indicted for allegedly joining the rebellion and the laying of mines. Zelaya ordered the execution of the two Americans, which severed [[U.S. relations]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn87078082/1909-12-01/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Chamorro+Cannon?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=cannon+chamorro&y=8&x=20&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=6 |title=''The Citizen'', Honesdale, PA December 1, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-01 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1909/11/23/101905987.pdf |title=''The New York Times'', November 23, 1909 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

The forces of [[Emiliano Chamorro Vargas]] and Nicaraguan General Juan Estrada, each leading conservative revolts against Zelaya's government, had captured three small towns on the border with [[Costa Rica]] and were fomenting open rebellion in the capital of [[Managua]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85058398/1909-12-08/ed-1/seq-1/;words=captured+Estrada+Captured?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=estrada+captured&y=13&x=17&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=13 |title=''The Ogden Standard'', December 8, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-08 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref> U.S. Naval warships that had been waiting off Mexico and Costa Rica moved into position.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85058398/1909-11-27/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Albany+Nicaragua?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=albany+nicaragua&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=3 |title=''The Ogden Standard'', November 27, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-11-27 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

The protected cruisers {{USS|Des Moines|CL-17|}}, {{USS|Tacoma|CL-20|}}, and collier {{USS|Hannibal|AG-1|}} lay in the harbor at [[Bluefields, Nicaragua]], on the Atlantic coast with {{USS|Prairie|AD-5|}} en route for [[Colón, Panama]], with 700 Marines. On December 12, 1909, ''Albany'' with 280 [[Naval rating|bluejackets]] and the gunboat {{USS|Yorktown|PG-1|}} with 155, arrived at [[Corinto, Nicaragua]], to join the gunboat {{USS|Vicksburg|PG-11|}} with her crew of 155 allegedly to protect American citizens and property on the Pacific coast of Nicaragua.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1909-12-14/ed-1/seq-3/;words=Albany+Nicaragua?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=albany+nicaragua&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=2 |title=''The San Francisco Call'', December 14, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-14 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn82015415/1909-12-13/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Albany+cruiser?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=cruiser+albany&y=6&x=18&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=11 |title=''The Hawaiian Star'', December 13, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-13 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1909-12-15/ed-1/seq-3/;words=Albany+Nicaragua+Cruiser?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=albany+cruiser+nicaragua&y=8&x=8&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=0 |title=''The San Francisco Call'', December 15, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-15 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042462/1909-12-15/ed-1/seq-2/;words=navy+Albany?date1=1908&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=albany+navy&y=11&x=13&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=17 |title=''Los Angeles Herald'', December 15, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-15 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

[[File:Nicaragua rel 97.jpg|upright=1.35|thumb|A map of Nicaragua]]

Zelaya resigned on December 14, 1909,<ref>[http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1909-12-17/ed-1/seq-1/;words=ZELAYAS+resignation+Zelaya?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=zelaya+resigns&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=15] ''New York Tribune'', December 17, 1909.</ref> and his hand-picked successor, [[Jose Madriz]], was elected by unanimous vote of the liberal Nicaraguan national assembly on December 20, 1909. U.S. [[Secretary of State]] [[Philander C. Knox]] admonished that the United States would not resume diplomatic relations with Nicaragua until Madriz demonstrated that his was a "responsible government ... prepared to make reparations for the wrongs" done to American citizens.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030214/1909-12-21/ed-1/seq-1/;words=ZELAYA+Zelaya+Madriz?date1=1909&sort=relevance&sort=relevance&sort=relevance&sort=relevance&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=zelaya+madriz+&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=4&page=3&page=2&page=3&page=1&index=8 |title=New York Tribune, December 21, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-21 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>[http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042462/1909-12-21/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Madriz+Zelaya+ZELAYA+MADRIZ?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=zelaya+madriz&y=10&x=17&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=7 ''The Los Angeles Herald''] December 21, 1909.</ref> His request for asylum granted by Mexico, Zelaya was escorted by armed guard to the Mexican gunboat ''General Guerrero'' and departed Corinto for [[Salina Cruz, Mexico]], on the night of December 23, with ''Albany'' standing by but taking no action.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn87062268/1909-12-17/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Zelayas+Madriz?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=zelaya+madriz&y=10&x=17&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=9 |title=The Pensacola Journal, December 17, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-17 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042462/1909-12-26/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Zelaya+Madriz?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=zelaya+madriz&y=13&x=16&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=3&index=4 |title=''The Los Angeles Herald'', December 26, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-26 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85042462/1909-12-26/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Zelaya+Madriz?date1=1909&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1909&proxtext=zelaya+madriz&y=13&x=16&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=3&index=4 |title=The ''Los Angeles Tribune'', December 21, 1909 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1909-12-26 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

As the flagship of the Nicaraguan Expeditionary Squadron, under Admiral [[William Wirt Kimball|William W. Kimball]], ''Albany'' spent the next five months in Central America, mostly at Corinto, maintaining U.S. neutrality in the ongoing rebellion, sometimes under criticism by the U.S. press and business interests that were displeased by Kimball's "friendly" attitude toward the liberal Madriz administration.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045396/1910-01-14/ed-1/seq-5/;words=Kimball+Admiral?date1=1910&sort=relevance&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1910&proxtext=admiral+kimball&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=5&index=15 |title=The Salt Lake Tribune, January 14, 1910 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1910-01-14 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045433/1910-01-29/ed-1/seq-4/;words=Kimbal+Kimball+Admiral?date1=1910&sort=relevance&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1910&proxtext=admiral+kimball&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=4&index=3 |title=The Washington Herald, January 29, 1910 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1910-01-29 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NmI7AQAAIAAJ&q=nicaraguan+expeditionary+squadron+albany&pg=PA803 |title=Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for the Fiscal Year 1910, p. 803 |year=1910 |access-date=2018-03-26|last1=Navy Dept |first1=United States}}</ref> By mid-March 1910, the insurgency led by Estrada and Chamorro had seemingly collapsed and with the apparent and unexpected strength of Madriz, the U.S. Nicaraguan Expeditionary Squadron completed its withdrawal from Nicaraguan waters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn88077573/1910-03-16/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Knox+Nicaragua?date1=1910&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1910&proxtext=Knox+nicaragua&y=16&x=18&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=2&index=5 |title=''The Marion Daily Mirror'', March 16, 1910 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1910-03-16 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

On May 27, 1910, U.S. Marine Corps Major [[Smedley Butler]] arrived on the coast of Nicaragua with 250 Marines, for the purpose of providing security in Bluefields. [[United States Secretary of State]] [[Philander C. Knox]] condemned Zelaya's actions, favoring Estrada. Zelaya succumbed to U.S. political pressure and fled the country, leaving [[José Madriz]] as his successor. Madriz in turn had to face an advance by the reinvigorated eastern rebel forces, which ultimately led to his resignation. In August 1910, Juan Estrada became president of Nicaragua with the official recognition of the United States.<ref>Langley, Lester D. (1983). ''The Banana Wars: An Inner History of American Empire, 1900–1934''. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.</ref>

{{anchor|Mena's rebellion (1912)}}

===Mena's rebellion (1912)===
{{History of Nicaragua}}
Estrada's administration allowed President [[William Howard Taft]] and Secretary of State [[Philander C. Knox]] to apply the [[Dollar Diplomacy]] or "dollars for bullets" policy. The goal was to undermine European financial strength in the region, which threatened American interests to construct a canal in the [[isthmus]], and also to protect American private investment in the development of Nicaragua's natural resources. The policy opened the door for American banks to lend money to the Nicaraguan government, ensuring United States control over the country's finances.<ref name="Musicant">{{Cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/bananawarshistor00musi|title=The Banana Wars: A History of United States Military Intervention in Latin America from the Spanish–American War to the Invasion of Panama|last=Musicant|first=Ivan|publisher=MacMillan Publishing|year=1990|isbn=978-0-02-588210-2|location=New York|url-access=registration}}</ref>{{rp|143}}

By 1912 the ongoing political conflict in Nicaragua between the liberal and conservative factions had deteriorated to the point that U.S. investments under President Taft's Dollar Diplomacy including substantial loans to the fragile coalition government of conservative President [[Juan José Estrada]] were in jeopardy. Minister of War General [[Luis Mena (Nicaraguan politician)|Luis Mena]] forced Estrada to resign. He was replaced by his vice president, the conservative [[Adolfo Díaz]].<ref name=Musicant />{{rp|143}}

Díaz's connection with the United States led to a decline in his popularity in Nicaragua. Nationalistic sentiments arose in the Nicaraguan military, including [[Luis Mena (Nicaraguan politician)|Luis Mena]], the Secretary of War. Mena managed to gain the support of the National Assembly, accusing Díaz of "selling out the nation to New York bankers". Díaz asked the U.S. government for help, as Mena's opposition turned into rebellion. Knox appealed to president Taft for military intervention, arguing that the Nicaraguan railway from [[Corinto, Nicaragua|Corinto]] to [[Granada, Nicaragua|Granada]] was threatened, interfering with U.S. interests.<ref name=Musicant />{{rp|144}}

In mid-1912 Mena persuaded the Nicaraguan [[national assembly]] to name him successor to Díaz when Díaz's term expired in 1913. When the United States refused to recognize the Nicaraguan assembly's decision, Mena rebelled against the Díaz government. A force led by liberal General [[Benjamín Zeledón]], with its stronghold at [[Masaya]], quickly came to the aid of Mena, whose [[headquarters]] were at [[Granada, Nicaragua|Granada]].<ref name="countrystudies.us">{{cite web|url=http://countrystudies.us/nicaragua/10.htm |title=''Nicaragua: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993'', edited by Tim Merrill |publisher=Countrystudies.us |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc1RBfZd3pcC&q=diaz+seize+managua&pg=PA64 |title=''The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898–1934'', by Lester D. Langley, pp. 60–70 |date=1912-03-05 |isbn=9780842050470 |access-date=2018-03-26|last1=Langley |first1=Lester D.|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield }}</ref>

Díaz, relying on the U.S. government's traditional support of the Nicaraguan conservative faction, made clear that he could not guarantee the safety of U.S. persons and property in Nicaragua and requested U.S. intervention. In the first two weeks of August 1912, Mena and his forces captured steamers on [[Lake Managua|Lakes Managua]] and [[Lake Nicaragua|Nicaragua]] that were owned by a railroad company managed by U.S. interests. Insurgents attacked the capital, [[Managua, Nicaragua|Managua]], subjecting it to a four-hour bombardment. U.S. minister George Wetzel cabled Washington to send U.S. troops to safeguard the U.S. [[legation]].<ref name="countrystudies.us"/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc1RBfZd3pcC&q=diaz+seize+managua&pg=PA64 |title=''The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898–1934'', by Lester D. Langley, pp. 60-70 |date=1912-03-05 |isbn=9780842050470 |access-date=2018-03-26|last1=Langley |first1=Lester D.|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield }}</ref>

At the time the revolution broke out, the Pacific Fleet gunboat {{USS|Annapolis|PG-10}} was on routine patrol off the west coast of Nicaragua. In the summer of 1912, 100 [[United States Marine Corps|U.S. Marines]] arrived aboard the USS ''Annapolis''. They were followed by [[Smedley Butler]]'s return from [[Panama]] with 350 Marines. The commander of the American forces was [[Admiral (United States)|Admiral]] [[William Henry Hudson Southerland]], joined by Colonel [[Joseph Henry Pendleton]] and 750 Marines. The main goal was securing the railroad from Corinto to [[Managua]].

===1912 occupation===
On August 4, at the recommendation of the Nicaraguan president, a landing force of 100 [[Sailor|bluejackets]] was dispatched from ''Annapolis'' to the capital, [[Managua]], to protect American citizens and guard the U.S. [[legation]] during the insurgency. On the east coast of Nicaragua, the {{USS|Tacoma|CL-20|}} (a [[protected cruiser]] from the American [[North Atlantic Fleet]]) was ordered to [[Bluefields, Nicaragua]], where she arrived on August 6 and landed a force of 50 men to protect American lives and property. A force of 350 [[U.S. Marines]] shipped north on the [[collier (ship type)|collier]] {{USS|Justin|1891|6}} from the [[Panama Canal Zone|Canal Zone]] and disembarked at Managua to reinforce the legation guard on August 15, 1912. Under this backdrop, ''Denver'' and seven other ships from the Pacific Fleet arrived at [[Corinto, Nicaragua]], from late August to September 1912, under the command of [[Rear Admiral]] [[William Henry Hudson Southerland|W.H.H. Southerland]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://archive.org/stream/annualreportsec38deptgoog#page/n20/mode/2up/search/denver |title=Annual Report of the Secretary of the Navy for 1912 |date=2010-07-21 |publisher=Washington, For sale by the Supt. of Docs., U.S. Govt. Print. Off |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc1RBfZd3pcC&q=diaz+seize+managua&pg=PA65 |title=''The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898–1934'', by Lester D. Langley, p. 65 |date=1912-03-05 |isbn=9780842050470 |access-date=2018-03-26|last1=Langley |first1=Lester D.|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield }}</ref>

{{USS|Denver|CL-16}}, commanded by [[Commander (United States)|Commander]] [[Thomas Washington]] arrived at Corinto on August 27, 1912, with 350 navy [[Sailor|bluejackets]] and [[United States Marines|Marines]] on board.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn88084272/1912-08-29/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Denver+cruiser?date1=1911&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1912&proxtext=cruiser+denver&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=3&index=9 |title=''El Paso Herald'', August 29, 1912 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1912-08-29 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref> Admiral Southerland's priorities were to re-establish and safeguard the disrupted railway and cable lines between the principal port of Corinto and Managua, {{convert|70|mi|km|order=flip}} to the southeast.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&q=end+of+nicaraguan+intervention+1912&pg=PA376 |title=''The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898 to 1934: An Encyclopedia'', by Benjamin Beede, p. 376 |isbn=9780824056247 |access-date=2018-03-26|last1=Beede |first1=Benjamin R. |year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045433/1912-08-27/ed-1/seq-2/;words=cruisers+Denver?date1=1911&sort=relevance&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1912&proxtext=cruiser+denver&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=4&page=5&index=5 |title=The Washington Herald, August 27, 1912 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1912-08-27 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

[[File:USS Denver Nicaragua Landing Force 1912.jpg|thumb|The ''[[USS Denver (CL-16)|USS Denver]]'' ship's landing force under Lt. A. Reed rests beside the Corinto, Nicaragua railroad line, 1912.]]

On August 29, 1912, a landing force of 120 men from USS ''Denver'', under the command of the ship's navigator, Lieutenant [[Allen B. Reed]], landed at [[Corinto, Nicaragua|Corinto]] to protect the railway line running from Corinto to Managua and then south to Granada on the north shore of Lake Nicaragua. This landing party reembarked aboard ship October 24 and 25, 1912. One officer and 24 men were landed from the ''Denver'' at [[San Juan del Sur]] on the southern end of the Nicaraguan [[isthmus]] from August 30 to September 6, 1912, and from September 11 to 27, 1912 to protect the cable station, [[custom house]] and American interests.<ref>[http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/haiti_list_exp.htm#1912 List of Expeditions 1901–1929, Navy Department Library, Navy History & Heritage Command] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101203180759/http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/haiti_list_exp.htm |date=December 3, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn88084272/1912-08-30/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Denver+cruiser?date1=1911&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1912&proxtext=cruiser+denver&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=3&index=10 |title=El Paso Herald, August 30, 1912 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1912-08-30 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1912/09/04/100546637.pdf |title=The New York Times, September 2, 1912 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref> ''Denver'' remained at San Juan del Sur to relay [[wireless]] messages from the other navy ships to and from Washington<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83045433/1912-09-01/ed-1/seq-1/;words=Nicaragua+Denver?date1=1911&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1912&proxtext=nicaragua+denver&y=7&x=15&dateFilterType=yearRange&index=2 |title=The Washington Herald, September 1, 1912 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1912-09-01 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref> until departing on September 30, for patrol duty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn83030272/1912-10-01/ed-1/seq-17/;words=Denver+cruiser?date1=1911&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1912&proxtext=cruiser+denver&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=4&index=12 |title=The New York Sun, October 1, 1912 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |date=1912-10-01 |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

On the morning of September 22, two battalions of Marines and an artillery battery under Major [[Smedley Butler]], [[U.S.M.C.]] had entered [[Granada, Nicaragua]] (after being [[Battle of Masaya|ambushed by rebels at Masaya]] on the nineteenth), where they were reinforced with the Marine first battalion commanded by Colonel [[Joseph H. Pendleton]], [[U.S.M.C.]] General Mena, the primary instigator of the failed [[coup d'etat]] surrendered his 700 troops to Southerland and was deported to [[Panama]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1912-10-07/ed-1/seq-3/;words=cruisers+Denver?date1=1911&sort=relevance&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1912&proxtext=cruiser+denver&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=4&page=5&index=8 |title=The San Francisco Call, October 7, 1912 |date=October 7, 1912 |page=3 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref> Beginning on the morning of September 27 and continuing through October 1, Nicaraguan government forces bombarded Barranca and [[Battle of Coyotepe Hill|Coyotepe]], two hills overlooking the all-important railway line at Masaya that Zeledón and about 550 of his men occupied, halfway between Managua and Granada.

On October 2, Nicaraguan government troops loyal to President Diaz delivered a surrender ultimatum to Zelaydón, who refused. Rear Admiral Southerland realized that Nicaraguan government forces would not vanquish the insurgents by bombardment or infantry assault, and ordered the Marine commanders to prepare to take the hills.<ref name="books.google.com">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=48g116X9IIwC&q=end+of+nicaraguan+intervention+1912&pg=PA377 |title=''The War of 1898 and U.S. Interventions, 1898 to 1934: An Encyclopedia'', by Benjamin Beede, p. 376–377 |isbn=9780824056247 |access-date=2018-03-26|last1=Beede |first1=Benjamin R. |year=1994|publisher=Taylor & Francis }}</ref><ref name="Xc1RBfZd3pcC p. 69">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xc1RBfZd3pcC&q=diaz+seize+managua&pg=PA64 |title=''The Banana Wars: United States Intervention in the Caribbean, 1898–1934'', by Lester D. Langley, p. 69 |date=1912-03-05 |isbn=9780842050470 |access-date=2018-03-26|last1=Langley |first1=Lester D.|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield }}</ref>

On October 3, Butler and his men, returning from the capture of Granada, pounded the hills with artillery throughout the day, with no response from the insurgents. In the pre-dawn hours of October 4, Butler's 250 Marines began moving up the higher hill, Coyotepe, to converge with Pendletons's 600 Marines and a landing battalion of bluejackets from ''California''. At the summit, the American forces seized the rebel's artillery and used it to rout Zeledón's troops on Barranca across the valley.<ref name="chroniclingamerica.loc.gov">{{cite web|url=http://chroniclingamerica.loc.gov/lccn/sn85066387/1912-10-07/ed-1/seq-3/;words=cruisers+Denver?date1=1911&sort=relevance&rows=20&searchType=basic&state=&date2=1912&proxtext=cruiser+denver&y=0&x=0&dateFilterType=yearRange&page=4&page=5&index=8 |title=The San Francisco Call, October 6, 1912 |date=October 7, 1912 |page=3 |publisher=Chroniclingamerica.loc.gov |access-date=2018-03-26}}</ref>

Zeledón and most of his troops had fled the previous day during the bombardment, many to Masaya, where Nicaraguan government troops captured or killed most of them, including Zeledón. With the insurgents driven from Masaya, Southerland ordered the occupation of Leon to stop any further interference with the U.S.-controlled railroad. On October 6, 1,000 bluejackets and Marines, from the cruisers {{USS|California|ACR-6|6}}, {{USS|Colorado|ACR-7|6}}, and ''Denver'' led by [[Lieutenant Colonel]] [[Charles G. Long]], U.S.M.C. captured the city of [[Leon, Nicaragua]], the last stronghold of the insurgency.<ref name="chroniclingamerica.loc.gov"/> The revolution of General Diaz was essentially over.

On October 23, Southerland announced that but for the Nicaraguan elections in early November, he would withdraw most of the U.S. landing forces. At that point, peaceful conditions prevailed and nearly all of the embarked U.S. Marines and bluejackets that had numbered approximately 2,350 at their peak, not including approximately 1,000 shipboard sailors, withdrew, leaving a legation guard of 100 Marines in Managua.<ref name="books.google.com"/><ref name="Xc1RBfZd3pcC p. 69"/><ref>[http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/naval_infantry.htm Sailors As Infantry in the U.S. Navy, The Navy Department Library] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121202222226/http://www.history.navy.mil/library/online/naval_infantry.htm |date=December 2, 2012}}</ref>

Of the 1,100 members of the United States military that intervened in Nicaragua, thirty-seven were killed in action. With Díaz safely in the presidency of the country, the United States proceeded to withdraw the majority of its forces from Nicaraguan territory, leaving one hundred Marines to "protect the American legation in Managua".

The Knox-Castrillo Treaty of 1911, ratified in 1912, put the U.S. in charge of much of Nicaragua's financial system.<ref name="Thiessen-Reily 2008 822–833">{{Cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture|last=Thiessen-Reily|first=Heather|publisher=Charles Scribner's Sons|year=2008|pages=822–833}}</ref>

In 1916, General [[Emiliano Chamorro Vargas]], a Conservative, assumed the presidency, and continued to attract foreign investment.<ref name="Thiessen-Reily 2008 822–833"/> Some Marines remained in the country after the intervention, occasionally clashing with local residents. In 1921, a group of Marines who raided a Managua newspaper office were dishonorably discharged.<ref>{{cite news |title=Marines Sentenced For Managua Raid |url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1921/02/27/112673054.pdf |access-date=27 February 2021 |work=The New York Times |volume=LXX|issue=23,045 |date=27 February 1921}}</ref> Later that year, a Marine private shot and killed a Nicaraguan policeman.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Nalty |first1=Bernard C. |title=The United States Marines in Nicaragua |publisher=Historical Branch, G-3, United States Marine Corps |page=11 |url=https://www.usmcu.edu/Portals/218/The%20US%20Marines%20in%20Nicaragua%20by%20Bernard%20C.%20Nalty.pdf?ver=2018-10-30-075558-780 |access-date=27 February 2021}}</ref>

===1927 occupation===
[[Nicaraguan Civil War (1926–1927)|Civil war erupted]] between the conservative and liberal factions on May 2, 1926, with liberals capturing [[Bluefields]], and [[José María Moncada Tapia]] capturing [[Puerto Cabezas]] in August.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|291}} On May 7, 1926, a U.S. Navy landing force, consisting of 213 officers and men, was landed from the [[USS Cleveland (C-19)|USS ''Cleveland'' (C-19)]] at Bluefields to protect Americans and U.S. interests.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.history.navy.mil/research/library/online-reading-room/title-list-alphabetically/l/list-of-expeditions-1901-1929.html |title=List of Expeditions 1901-1929 |last= |first= |author= |date= |website=history.navy.mil |publisher= |language= |url-status= |archive-url= |archive-date= |quote=}}</ref> [[Juan Bautista Sacasa]] declared himself Constitutional President of Nicaragua from Puerto Cabezas on December 1, 1926.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|292}} Following [[Emiliano Chamorro Vargas]]' resignation, the Nicaraguan Congress selected [[Adolfo Diaz]] as ''designado'', who then requested intervention from President [[Calvin Coolidge]].<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|292–293}} On January 24, 1927, the first elements of U.S. forces arrived, with 400 Marines.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|293}}

Government forces were defeated on February 6 at [[Chinandega]], followed by another defeat at [[Muy Muy]], prompting U.S. Marine landings at [[Corinto, Nicaragua|Corinto]] and the occupation of La Loma Fort in Managua.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|294–295}} [[Ross E. Rowell]]'s Observation Squadron arrived on February 26, which included [[DeHavilland DH-4]]s.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|296}} By March, the U.S. had 2,000 troops in Nicaragua under the command of General [[Logan Feland]].<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|297}} In May, [[Henry Stimson]] brokered a peace deal which included disarmament and promised elections in 1928.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|297–299}} However, the Liberal commander [[Augusto César Sandino]], and 200 of his men refused to give up the revolution.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|299}}

On June 30, Sandino seized the San Albino gold mine, denounced the Conservative government, and attracted recruits to continue operations.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|308}} The next month saw the [[Battle of Ocotal]]. Despite additional conflict with Sandino's rebels, U.S.-supervised elections were held on November 4, 1928, with Moncada the winner.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|349}} Manuel Giron was captured and executed in February 1929, and Sandino took a year's leave in Mexico.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|350–351}} By 1930, Sandino's guerrilla forces numbered more than 5,000 men.<ref name="Thiessen-Reily 2008 822–833"/>

The only American journalist who interviewed Sandino during this occupation was [[Carleton Beals]] of ''[[The Nation]]''.<ref name="Our">{{cite journal|year=1999 |title=Our Century: The Twenties |journal=The Nation |url=http://www.thenation.com/doc/20000110/1920s |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070311140411/http://www.thenation.com/doc/20000110/1920s |url-status=dead |archive-date=March 11, 2007}}</ref>

[[Calvin Coolidge]] sent U.S. Marines to Nicaragua.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1926/12/29/archives/coolidge-confers-on-nicaragua-crisis-new-policy-hinted-calls.html | title=COOLIDGE CONFERS ON NICARAGUA CRISIS; NEW POLICY HINTED; Calls Kellogg and Wilbur After Stating Marines Landed to Protect Americans | work=The New York Times | date=December 29, 1926 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1927/01/21/archives/coolidge-predicts-peace-in-nicaragua-tells-dr-cesar-new-envoy-first.html | title=COOLIDGE PREDICTS PEACE IN NICARAGUA; Tells Dr. Cesar, New Envoy, First Steps for Composing Differences Have Been Taken. DISCLAIMS SELFISH AIMS Says We Desire Freedom and Prosperity of Every Central American Republic. COOLIDGE PREDICTS PEACE IN NICARAGUA | work=The New York Times | date=January 21, 1927 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://coolidgefoundation.org/resources/intervention-in-nicaragua/ | title=Intervention in Nicaragua }}</ref>

The Hoover administration started a U.S. pullout such that by February 1932, only 745 men remained.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|354}} Juan Sacasa was elected president in the November 6, 1932, election.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|359}} The [[Battle of El Sauce]] was the last major engagement of the U.S. intervention.<ref name=Musicant/>{{rp|360}}

==See also==
{{portal|Nicaragua|United States}}
* [[American imperialism]]
* [[History of Nicaragua]]
* [[Nicaraguan Campaign Medal]]
* [[Overseas interventions of the United States]]
* [[Second Nicaraguan Campaign Medal]]
* [[United States involvement in regime change]]
* [[United States-Latin American relations]]
* [[Nicaragua v. United States]]
* [[Nicaragua–United States relations]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

==External links==
* [http://countrystudies.us/nicaragua/8.htm Nicaragua 8 1850–1868]
* [http://countrystudies.us/nicaragua/10.htm Nicaragua 10 1909–1933]
* [http://www.sandinorebellion.com/ Sandino rebellion 1927–1934]

{{Nicaragua topics}}
{{United States intervention in Latin America}}
{{Territories of the United States}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:United States occupation of Nicaragua}}
[[Category:United States occupation of Nicaragua|*]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1912]]
[[Category:1910s in Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Banana Wars|Nicaragua]]
[[Category:American military occupations|Nicaragua]]
[[Category:American imperialism]]
[[Category:Military history of Nicaragua]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps in the 20th century]]
[[Category:Wars involving Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Wars involving the United States|Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Nicaragua–United States military relations]]
[[Category:1920s in Nicaragua]]
[[Category:1930s in Nicaragua]]
[[Category:United States involvement in regime change]]