View source for Internet of things

{{short description|Internet-like structure connecting everyday physical objects}}
{{distinguish|Web of Things}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2019}}
{{Use American English|date=December 2020}}
{{Internet of Things}}

'''Internet of things''' ('''IoT''') describes devices with [[sensor]]s, processing ability, [[software]] and other [[technologies]] that connect and exchange data with other devices and systems over the [[Internet]] or other communication networks.<ref name="Linux Things">{{cite web|url=https://internetofthingsagenda.techtarget.com/definition/Internet-of-Things-IoT|title=What is internet of things (IoT)? |last=Gillis|first=Alexander|date=2021|website=IOT Agenda|access-date=17 August 2021}}</ref><ref name="Linux 21OSP">{{cite web |url=http://www.linux.com/NEWS/21-OPEN-SOURCE-PROJECTS-IOT |title=21 Open Source Projects for IoT |first=Eric |last=Brown |website=Linux.com |date=20 September 2016 |access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref><ref name="IqTU">{{cite web |url=http://www.itu.int/en/ITU-T/gsi/iot/Pages/default.aspx |title=Internet of Things Global Standards Initiative |work=ITU |access-date=26 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.london.gov.uk/blog/the-trouble-with-the-internet-of-things/|title=The Trouble with the Internet of Things|last1=Hendricks|first1=Drew|website=London Datastore|date=10 August 2015 |publisher=Greater London Authority|access-date=10 August 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Shafiq |first1=Muhammad |last2=Gu |first2=Zhaoquan |last3=Cheikhrouhou |first3=Omar |last4=Alhakami |first4=Wajdi |last5=Hamam |first5=Habib |date=2022-08-03 |title=The Rise of "Internet of Things": Review and Open Research Issues Related to Detection and Prevention of IoT-Based Security Attacks |journal=Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing |language=en |volume=2022 |pages=e8669348 |doi=10.1155/2022/8669348 |issn=1530-8669|doi-access=free }}</ref> The Internet of things encompasses [[Electronic engineering|electronics]], [[Telecommunications engineering|communication]], and [[computer science]] engineering. "Internet of things" has been considered a [[misnomer]] because devices do not need to be connected to the public [[internet]]; they only need to be connected to a network<ref>{{Cite web |last=Beal |first=Vangie |orig-date=1996-09-01 |date=March 2, 2022 |title=What is a Network? |url=https://www.webopedia.com/definitions/network/ |access-date=2022-11-22 |website=Webopedia |language=en-US |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122103741/https://www.webopedia.com/definitions/network/ |archive-date= 2022-11-22 }}</ref> and be individually addressable.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2fwwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA440 |publisher=Springer |title=Internet of things and big data analytics toward next-generation intelligence |date=2018 |editor-first1=Nilanjan |editor-last1=Dey |editor-first2=Aboul Ella |editor-last2=Hassanien |editor-first3=Chintan |editor-last3=Bhatt |editor-first4=Amira |editor-last4=Ashour |editor-first5=Suresh Chandra |editor-last5=Satapathy |isbn=978-3-319-60435-0 |location=Cham, Switzerland |pages=440 |oclc=1001327784}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Forecast: The Internet of Things, Worldwide, 2013 |url=https://www.gartner.com/en/documents/2625419/forecast-the-internet-of-things-worldwide-2013 |date=18 November 2013 |access-date=2022-03-03 |website=Gartner |language=en}}</ref>

The field has evolved due to the convergence of multiple [[technologies]], including [[ubiquitous computing]], [[commodity]] [[sensors]], and increasingly powerful [[embedded system]]s, as well as [[machine learning]].<ref name="ast">Hu, J.; Niu, H.; Carrasco, J.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F., "[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1270963822001687 Fault-tolerant cooperative navigation of networked UAV swarms for forest fire monitoring]" Aerospace Science and Technology, 2022. {{doi|10.1016/j.ast.2022.107494}}.</ref> Older fields of [[embedded system]]s, [[wireless sensor network]]s, control systems, [[automation]] (including [[Home automation|home]] and [[building automation]]), independently and collectively enable the Internet of things.<ref name="aut">Hu, J.; Lennox, B.; Arvin, F., "[https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0005109822000802 Robust formation control for networked robotic systems using Negative Imaginary dynamics]" Automatica, 2022. {{doi|10.1016/j.automatica.2022.110235}}.</ref>  In the consumer market, IoT technology is most [[synonymous]] with "[[smart home]]" products, including devices and [[Home appliance|appliances]] ([[Light fixture|lighting fixtures]], [[thermostats]], home [[security systems]], [[camera]]s, and other home appliances) that support one or more common ecosystems and can be controlled via devices associated with that ecosystem, such as [[smartphone]]s and [[smart speaker]]s. IoT is also used in [[healthcare system]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Laplante|first1=Phillip A.|last2=Kassab|first2=Mohamad|last3=Laplante|first3=Nancy L.|last4=Voas|first4=Jeffrey M.|date=2018|title=Building Caring Healthcare Systems in the Internet of Things|journal=IEEE Systems Journal|volume=12|issue=3|pages=3030–3037|doi=10.1109/JSYST.2017.2662602|issn=1932-8184|pmc=6506834|pmid=31080541|bibcode=2018ISysJ..12.3030L}}</ref>

There are a number of concerns about the risks in the growth of IoT technologies and products, especially in the areas of [[Digital privacy|privacy]] and [[Digital security|security]], and consequently there have been industry and government moves to address these concerns, including the development of international and local standards, guidelines, and regulatory frameworks.<ref>{{Cite web|title=The New York City Internet of Things Strategy|url=https://www1.nyc.gov/assets/cto/#/project/iot-strategy|access-date=2021-09-06|website=www1.nyc.gov}}</ref> Because of their interconnected nature, IoT devices are vulnerable to security breaches and privacy concerns. At the same time, the way these devices communicate wirelessly creates regulatory ambiguities, complicating jurisdictional boundaries of the data transfer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Mulder |first1=T. |last2=Tudorica |first2=M. |date=2019-09-02 |title=Privacy policies, cross-border health data and the GDPR |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/13600834.2019.1644068 |journal=Information & Communications Technology Law |language=en |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=261–274 |doi=10.1080/13600834.2019.1644068 |issn=1360-0834}}</ref>

==Background==
Around 1972, for its remote site use, [[Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]] developed a computer controlled vending machine, adapted from a machine rented from [[Canteen Vending]], which sold for cash or, though a computer terminal ([[Teletype Model 33|Teletype Model 33 KSR]]),<ref name=Photo-PP/> on credit.<ref name="lesEarnest/sagas"/> Products included, at least, beer, yogurt, and milk.<ref name="lesEarnest/sagas"/><ref name=Photo-PP>[https://web.archive.org/web/20070209005842/http://www-db.stanford.edu/pub/voy/museum/pictures/tobeadded/Pony.jpg Pony vending in use]</ref> It was called the ''Prancing Pony'', after the name of the room, named after an inn in Tolkien's [[Lord of the Rings]],<ref name="lesEarnest/sagas"/><ref name="SAIL Farewell">{{cite web |title=TAKE ME, I'M YOURS: The autobiography of SAIL |url=https://infolab.stanford.edu/pub/voy/museum/pictures/AIlab/SailFarewell.html |website=Stanford InfoLab |publisher=[[Stanford]] |access-date=15 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070208132502/https://infolab.stanford.edu/pub/voy/museum/pictures/AIlab/SailFarewell.html |archive-date=8 February 2007}}</ref> as each room at  [[Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]] was named after a place in [[Middle Earth]].<ref name="LesEarnest/sailAway">{{cite web |last1=Earnest |first1=Les |author1-link=Les Earnest |title=SAIL Away |url=https://web.stanford.edu/~learnest/sail/sailaway.htm |website=Web |publisher=[[Stanford]] |access-date=15 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201227151528/https://web.stanford.edu/~learnest/sail/sailaway.htm |archive-date=27 December 2020 |quote=Originally published in The Analytical Engine, May 1995, under the silly title “HELLO, SAILOR!” chosen by the editor.  (The Analytical Engine: Newsletter of the Computer History Association of California)}}</ref> A successor version still operates in the Computer Science Department at Stanford, with both hardware and software having been updated.<ref name="lesEarnest/sagas">{{cite web |last1=Earnest |first1=Les |author1-link=Les Earnest |title=SAIL Sagas |url=https://web.stanford.edu/~learnest/spin/sagas.htm |website=[[Stanford University]] |access-date=15 September 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200709220602/https://web.stanford.edu/~learnest/spin/sagas.htm |archive-date=9 July 2020 |date=December 13, 2009}}</ref>

==History==
In 1982,<ref name="cs.cmu/~coke">{{cite web |title=CMU SCS Coke Machine Home Page |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~coke/ |website=www.cs.cmu.edu |access-date=15 September 2024}}</ref> an early concept of a network connected [[smart device]] was built as an internet interface for sensors installed in the [[Carnegie Mellon University]] ''Computer Science Department'''s departmental [[Coca-Cola]] [[vending machine]], supplied by graduate student volunteers, provided a temperature model and an inventory status,<ref name="cs.cmu/coke/history_long">{{cite web |title=history_long.txt |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~coke/history_long.txt |website=~coke |publisher=cs.cmu.edu |access-date=15 September 2024}}</ref><ref name="cs.cmu/coke/history_short">{{cite web |title=history_short.txt |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~coke/history_short.txt |website=~coke |publisher=cs.cmu.edu |access-date=15 September 2024}}</ref> inspired by the computer controlled vending machine in the ''Prancing Pony'' room at [[Stanford Artificial Intelligence Laboratory]].<ref name="cs.cmu/coke/coke.history">{{cite web |title=coke.history.txt |url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~coke/coke.history.txt |website=~coke |publisher=cs.cmu.edu |access-date=15 September 2024}}</ref> First accessible only on the CMU campus, it became the first [[ARPANET]]-connected appliance,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cs.cmu.edu/~coke/history_long.txt|title=The 'Only' Coke Machine on the Internet|website= cs.cmu.edu| publisher = [[Carnegie Mellon University]]|access-date=10 November 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|date=7 July 2014|title=Internet of Things Done Wrong Stifles Innovation|url=http://www.informationweek.com/strategic-cio/executive-insights-and-innovation/internet-of-things-done-wrong-stifles-innovation/a/d-id/1279157|journal= [[InformationWeek]]|access-date=10 November 2014}}</ref> 

[[Mark Weiser]]'s 1991 paper on [[ubiquitous computing]], "The Computer of the 21st Century", as well as academic venues such as UbiComp and PerCom produced the contemporary vision of the IoT.<ref name="IoT journal2">{{cite journal|last1=Mattern|first1=Friedemann|last2=Floerkemeier|first2=Christian|s2cid=29563772|date= 2010| title=From the Internet of Computer to the Internet of Things|url= http://www.vs.inf.ethz.ch/publ/papers/Internet-of-things.pdf|journal=Informatik-Spektrum|volume=33|issue=2|pages=107–121|doi=10.1007/s00287-010-0417-7|access-date=3 February 2014|bibcode= 2009InfSp..32..496H|hdl= 20.500.11850/159645}}</ref><ref name="UbiquitiousComputing">{{cite journal|last=Weiser|first=Mark|date=1991|title=The Computer for the 21st Century|url=http://web.media.mit.edu/~anjchang/ti01/weiser-sciam91-ubicomp.pdf|url-status=dead|journal=Scientific American|volume=265|issue=3|pages=94–104|bibcode=1991SciAm.265c..94W|doi= 10.1038/scientificamerican0991-94|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150311220327/http://web.media.mit.edu/~anjchang/ti01/weiser-sciam91-ubicomp.pdf|archive-date=11 March 2015|access-date=5 November 2014}}</ref> In 1994, Reza Raji described the concept in ''[[IEEE Spectrum]]'' as "[moving] small packets of data to a large set of nodes, so as to integrate and automate everything from home appliances to entire factories".<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1109/6.284793|title = Smart networks for control|journal = [[IEEE Spectrum]] |volume = 31|issue = 6|pages = 49–55|year = 1994|last1 = Raji|first1 = R.S.|s2cid = 42364553}}</ref> Between 1993<!-- launch of Microsoft at Work --> and 1997<!-- abandonment of Novell NEST -->, several companies proposed solutions like [[Microsoft]]'s [[at Work]] or [[Novell]]'s [[Novell Embedded Systems Technology|NEST]]. The field gained momentum when [[Bill Joy]] envisioned [[device-to-device]] communication as a part of his "Six Webs" framework, presented at the World Economic Forum at Davos in 1999.<ref name="ETC: Bill Joy's Six Webs">{{cite journal|last=Pontin|first=Jason|date=29 September 2005|title=ETC: Bill Joy's Six Webs|url=http://www.technologyreview.com/view/404694/etc-bill-joys-six-webs/|journal= [[MIT Technology Review]] |access-date=17 November 2013}}</ref>

The concept of the "Internet of things" and the term itself, first appeared in a speech by Peter T. Lewis, to the Congressional Black Caucus Foundation {{nowrap|15th Annual}} Legislative Weekend in [[Washington, D.C.]], published in September 1985. According to Lewis, "The Internet of Things, or IoT, is the integration of people, processes and [[technology]] with connectable devices and sensors to enable remote monitoring, status, manipulation and evaluation of trends of such devices."<ref>{{Cite book |last= Lakhwani |first=Kamlesh |url= |title=Internet of Things (IoT) : Principles, Paradigms and Applications of IoT |date=2020 |others=Hemant Kumar Gianey, Joseph Kofi Wireko, Kamal Kant Hiran |isbn=9789389423365 |location=[Place of publication not identified] |oclc= 1188989203}}</ref>

The term "Internet of things" was coined independently by [[Kevin Ashton]] of [[Procter & Gamble]], later of [[MIT]]'s [[Auto-ID Center]], in 1999,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rfidjournal.com/articles/view?4986|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415194522/http://www.rfidjournal.com/articles/view?4986|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 April 2013|title=That 'Internet of Things' Thing|last=Ashton|first=K.|date=22 June 2009| website = rfidjournal.com | publisher=| access-date=9 May 2017}}</ref> though he prefers the phrase "Internet ''for'' things".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://downloads.bbc.co.uk/podcasts/radio/worldbiz/worldbiz_20150319-0730a.mp3|title=Peter Day's World of Business|website=BBC.co.uk |publisher=BBC World Service |access-date=4 October 2016}}</ref> At that point, he viewed [[radio-frequency identification]] (RFID) as essential to the Internet of things,<ref name="gartner.com">{{cite web|url= https://www.gartner.com/doc/356347/universal-rfid-infrastructure-good-thing|title=Why a Universal RFID Infrastructure Would Be a Good Thing|last=Magrassi|first=P.|author-link=Paolo Magrassi|date=2 May 2002|work=Gartner research report G00106518}}</ref> which would allow [[computer]]s to manage all individual things.<ref name="gartner">{{Cite web|url=http://www.gartner.com/DisplayDocument?id=366151|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20031003090617/http://www3.gartner.com/DisplayDocument?id=366151|url-status=dead|archive-date=3 October 2003|title=A World of Smart Objects|last1=Magrassi|first1=P.|last2= Berg|first2=T|date=12 August 2002|work=Gartner research report R-17-2243}}</ref><ref name="EC, Action plan for Europe">{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/policy/rfid/documents/commiot2009.pdf| website= ec.europa.eu| title=Internet of Things – An action plan for Europe|publisher=Commission of the European Communities|date=18 June 2009|id= COM(2009) 278 final}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/media-network/2015/mar/31/the-internet-of-things-is-revolutionising-our-lives-but-standards-are-a-must|title=The internet of things is revolutionizing our lives, but standards are a must|last1=Wood|first1= Alex|date=31 March 2015| newspaper= The Guardian}}</ref> The main theme of the Internet of things is to embed short-range mobile transceivers in various gadgets and daily necessities to enable new forms of communication between people and things, and between things themselves.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Stallings|first=William|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/927715441|title=Foundations of modern networking : SDN, NFV, QoE, IoT, and Cloud|date=2016|others=Florence Agboma, Sofiene Jelassi| isbn= 978-0-13-417547-8| location=Indianapolis |oclc=927715441}}</ref>

In 2004 Cornelius "Pete" Peterson, CEO of NetSilicon, predicted that, "The next era of information technology will be dominated by [IoT] devices, and networked devices will ultimately gain in popularity and significance to the extent that they will far exceed the number of networked computers and workstations." Peterson believed that medical devices and industrial controls would become dominant applications of the technology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=StackPath |url=https://www.industryweek.com/technology-and-iiot/automation/article/21955301/netsilicon-incwaltham-mass |access-date= 2022-05-20 |website= Industryweek.com| date=21 December 2004 }}</ref>

Defining the Internet of things as "simply the point in time when more 'things or objects' were connected to the Internet than people", [[Cisco Systems]] estimated that the IoT was "born" between 2008 and 2009, with the things/people ratio growing from 0.08 in 2003 to 1.84 in 2010.<ref>{{cite journal|date=April 2011|author=Dave Evans|title=The Internet of Things: How the Next Evolution of the Internet Is Changing Everything|url=https://www.cisco.com/c/dam/en_us/about/ac79/docs/innov/IoT_IBSG_0411FINAL.pdf|journal=CISCO White Paper}}</ref>

==Applications==
The extensive set of applications for IoT devices<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Vongsingthong|first1=S.|last2=Smanchat|first2=S.|date=2014|title=Internet of Things: A review of applications & technologies|url=http://ird.sut.ac.th/e-journal/Journal/suwimonv/1403739/1403739.pdf|journal=Suranaree Journal of Science and Technology}}</ref> is often divided into consumer, commercial, industrial, and infrastructure spaces.<ref name="Business Insider">{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/the-enterprise-internet-of-things-market-2014-12 |title=The Enterprise Internet of Things Market |date=25 February 2015 |work=Business Insider |access-date=26 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Perera|first1=C.|last2=Liu|first2=C. H.|last3=Jayawardena|first3=S.|s2cid=7329149|date=December 2015|title=The Emerging Internet of Things Marketplace From an Industrial Perspective: A Survey|journal=IEEE Transactions on Emerging Topics in Computing|volume=3|issue=4|pages=585–598|doi=10.1109/TETC.2015.2390034|issn=2168-6750|arxiv=1502.00134|bibcode=2015arXiv150200134P}}</ref>

===Consumers===
A growing portion of IoT devices is created for consumer use, including connected vehicles, [[home automation]], [[wearable technology]], connected health, and appliances with remote monitoring capabilities.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://trak.in/tags/business/2016/08/30/internet-of-things-iot-changing-fundamentals-of-retailing/|title=How IoT's are Changing the Fundamentals of "Retailing"|date=30 August 2016|work=Trak.in – Indian Business of Tech, Mobile & Startups|access-date=2 June 2017}}</ref>

====Home automation====
IoT devices are a part of the larger concept of [[home automation]], which can include lighting, heating and air conditioning, media and security systems and camera systems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kang |first1=Won Min |last2=Moon |first2=Seo Yeon |last3=Park |first3=Jong Hyuk |date=5 March 2017 |title=An enhanced security framework for home appliances in smart home |journal=Human-centric Computing and Information Sciences |volume=7 |issue=6 |doi=10.1186/s13673-017-0087-4 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="businessinsider.com">{{Cite news|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/internet-of-things-smart-home-automation-2016-8|title=How IoT & smart home automation will change the way we live|work=Business Insider|access-date=10 November 2017}}</ref> Long-term benefits could include energy savings by automatically ensuring lights and electronics are turned off or by making the residents in the home aware of usage.<ref name="IoTEnergyKettle">{{Cite book|author1=Jussi Karlgren|author2=Lennart Fahlén|author3=Anders Wallberg|author4=Pär Hansson|author5=Olov Ståhl|author6=Jonas Söderberg|author7=Karl-Petter Åkesson|title=The Internet of Things |chapter=Socially Intelligent Interfaces for Increased Energy Awareness in the Home |series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science |s2cid=30983428|date=2008|publisher=Springer|volume=4952|pages=263–275|doi=10.1007/978-3-540-78731-0_17|arxiv=2106.15297|isbn=978-3-540-78730-3|author-link1=Jussi Karlgren}}</ref>

A smart home or automated home could be based on a platform or hubs that control smart devices and appliances.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Internet of Things|last=Greengard|first=Samuel|publisher=MIT Press|year=2015|isbn=9780262527736|location=Cambridge, MA|pages=90}}</ref> For instance, using [[Apple Inc.|Apple]]'s [[HomeKit]], manufacturers can have their home products and accessories controlled by an application in [[iOS]] devices such as the [[iPhone]] and the [[Apple Watch]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://developer.apple.com/homekit/|title=HomeKit – Apple Developer|website=developer.apple.com|language=en|access-date=19 September 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/apple-homekit-everything-you-need-to-know/|title=Here's everything you need to know about Apple HomeKit|last=Wollerton|first=Megan|date=3 June 2018|work=CNET|access-date=19 September 2018|language=en}}</ref> This could be a dedicated app or iOS native applications such as [[Siri]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=https://9to5mac.com/2018/08/31/cheap-homekit-bulbs-switches-camera/|title=HomeKit devices getting more affordable as Lenovo announces Smart Home Essentials line|last=Lovejoy|first=Ben|date=31 August 2018|work=9to5Mac|access-date=19 September 2018|language=en-US}}</ref> This can be demonstrated in the case of Lenovo's Smart Home Essentials, which is a line of smart home devices that are controlled through Apple's Home app or Siri without the need for a Wi-Fi bridge.<ref name=":3" /> There are also dedicated smart home hubs that are offered as standalone platforms to connect different smart home products. These include the [[Amazon Echo]], [[Google Home]], Apple's [[HomePod]], and Samsung's [[SmartThings|SmartThings Hub]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.tomsguide.com/us/best-smart-home-hubs,review-3200.html|title=Best Smart Home Hubs of 2018|last=Prospero|first=Mike|date=12 September 2018|work=Tom's Guide|access-date=19 September 2018|language=en}}</ref> In addition to the commercial systems, there are many non-proprietary, open source ecosystems, including Home Assistant, OpenHAB and Domoticz.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Jason |title=6 open source home automation tools |url=https://opensource.com/tools/home-automation |access-date=13 May 2019 |work=opensource.com |date=14 December 2017}}</ref>

====Elder care====
One key application of a smart home is to [[Home automation for the elderly and disabled|assist the elderly and disabled]]. These home systems use assistive technology to accommodate an owner's specific disabilities.<ref name="auto1">{{cite journal|last1=Demiris|first1=G|last2=Hensel|first2=K|s2cid=7244183|date=2008|title=Technologies for an Aging Society: A Systematic Review of 'Smart Home' Applications|journal=IMIA Yearbook of Medical Informatics 2008|volume=17|pages=33–40|doi=10.1055/s-0038-1638580|pmid=18660873|doi-access=free}}</ref> [[Voice control]] can assist users with sight and mobility limitations while alert systems can be connected directly to [[cochlear implant]]s worn by hearing-impaired users.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Aburukba|first1=Raafat|last2=Al-Ali|first2=A. R.|last3=Kandil|first3=Nourhan|last4=AbuDamis|first4=Diala|title=2016 International Conference on Industrial Informatics and Computer Systems (CIICS) |chapter=Configurable ZigBee-based control system for people with multiple disabilities in smart homes |s2cid=16754386|date=10 May 2016|pages=1–5|doi=10.1109/ICCSII.2016.7462435|isbn=978-1-4673-8743-9}}</ref> They can also be equipped with additional safety features, including sensors that monitor for medical emergencies such as falls or [[seizure]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mulvenna|first1=Maurice|last2=Hutton|first2=Anton|last3=Martin|first3=Suzanne|last4=Todd|first4=Stephen|last5=Bond|first5=Raymond|last6=Moorhead|first6=Anne|date=14 December 2017|title=Views of Caregivers on the Ethics of Assistive Technology Used for Home Surveillance of People Living with Dementia|url= |journal=Neuroethics|volume=10|issue=2|pages=255–266|doi=10.1007/s12152-017-9305-z|pmid=28725288|pmc=5486509}}</ref> Smart home technology applied in this way can provide users with more freedom and a higher quality of life.<ref name="auto1"/>

===Organizations===

The term "Enterprise IoT" refers to devices used in business and corporate settings. 

====Medical and healthcare====
The '''Internet of Medical Things''' ('''IoMT''') is an application of the IoT for medical and health-related purposes, data collection and analysis for research, and monitoring.<ref name=Wards>{{cite journal |last1=da Costa |first1=CA |last2=Pasluosta |first2=CF |last3=Eskofier |first3=B |last4=da Silva |first4=DB |last5=da Rosa Righi |first5=R |title=Internet of Health Things: Toward intelligent vital signs monitoring in hospital wards. |journal=Artificial Intelligence in Medicine |date=July 2018 |volume=89 |pages=61–69 |doi=10.1016/j.artmed.2018.05.005 |pmid=29871778|s2cid=46941758 }}</ref><ref name=Geron>{{cite journal |last1=Engineer |first1=A |last2=Sternberg |first2=EM |last3=Najafi |first3=B |s2cid=52056959 |title=Designing Interiors to Mitigate Physical and Cognitive Deficits Related to Aging and to Promote Longevity in Older Adults: A Review. |journal=Gerontology |volume=64 |issue=6 |date=21 August 2018 |pages=612–622 |doi=10.1159/000491488 |pmid=30130764|doi-access=free }} {{open access}}</ref><ref name=ClinLab>{{cite journal |last1=Kricka |first1=LJ |s2cid=49354315 |title=History of disruptions in laboratory medicine: what have we learned from predictions? |journal=Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine |volume=57 |issue=3 |pages=308–311 |doi=10.1515/cclm-2018-0518 |pmid=29927745|year=2019 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Gatouillat|first1=Arthur|last2=Badr|first2=Youakim|last3=Massot|first3=Bertrand|last4=Sejdic|first4=Ervin|date=2018|title=Internet of Medical Things: A Review of Recent Contributions Dealing with Cyber-Physical Systems in Medicine|journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal|volume=5|issue=5|language=en-US|pages=3810–3822|doi=10.1109/jiot.2018.2849014|s2cid=53440449|issn=2327-4662|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01836236/file/ieee-iot-j.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=The Patient Will See You Now: The Future of Medicine Is in Your Hands|last=Topol|first=Eric|publisher=Basic Books|year=2016|isbn=978-0465040025}}</ref> The IoMT has been referenced as "Smart Healthcare",<ref name="auto2">{{cite book |last1=Dey |first1=Nilanjan |last2=Hassanien |first2=Aboul Ella |last3=Bhatt |first3=Chintan |last4=Ashour |first4=Amira S. |last5=Satapathy |first5=Suresh Chandra |title=Internet of things and big data analytics toward next-generation intelligence |date=2018 |publisher=Springer International Publishing |isbn=978-3-319-60434-3 |url=http://shsalmani.ir/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Internet-of-Things-and-Big-Data-Analytics-Toward-Next-Generation-Intelligence.pdf |access-date=14 October 2018 |archive-date=14 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181014204259/http://shsalmani.ir/wp-content/uploads/2017/09/Internet-of-Things-and-Big-Data-Analytics-Toward-Next-Generation-Intelligence.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> as the technology for creating a digitized healthcare system, connecting available medical resources and healthcare services.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Internet of Medical Things (IoMT) for orthopaedic in COVID-19 pandemic: Roles, challenges, and applications|year=2020|pmc=7227564|last1=Pratap Singh|first1=R.|last2=Javaid|first2=M.|last3=Haleem|first3=A.|last4=Vaishya|first4=R.|last5=Ali|first5=S.|journal=Journal of Clinical Orthopaedics and Trauma|volume=11|issue=4|pages=713–717|doi=10.1016/j.jcot.2020.05.011|pmid=32425428}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/uk/Documents/life-sciences-health-care/deloitte-uk-connected-health.pdf|title=Deloitte Centre for Health Solutions|website=Deloitte}}</ref>

IoT devices can be used to enable [[Remote patient monitoring|remote health monitoring]] and [[emergency notification system]]s. These health monitoring devices can range from blood pressure and heart rate monitors to advanced devices capable of monitoring specialized implants, such as pacemakers, Fitbit electronic wristbands, or advanced hearing aids.<ref name="CoMAN">{{cite journal |last1=Ersue |first1=M. |last2=Romascanu |first2=D. |last3=Schoenwaelder |first3=J. |last4=Sehgal |first4=A. |date=May 2015 |title=Management of Networks with Constrained Devices: Use Cases |url=https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/pdf/rfc7548 |journal=IETF Internet Draft}}</ref> Some hospitals have begun implementing "smart beds" that can detect when they are occupied and when a patient is attempting to get up. It can also adjust itself to ensure appropriate pressure and support are applied to the patient without the manual interaction of nurses.<ref name=Wards/> A 2015 Goldman Sachs report indicated that healthcare IoT devices "can save the United States more than $300 billion in annual healthcare expenditures by increasing revenue and decreasing cost."<ref name="Engage16">{{cite web|url=https://www.engagemobile.com/goldman-sachs-report-how-the-internet-of-things-can-save-the-american-healthcare-system-305-billion-annually/|title=Goldman Sachs Report: How the Internet of Things Can Save the American Healthcare System $305 Billion Annually|date=23 June 2016|work=Engage Mobile Blog|publisher=Engage Mobile Solutions, LLC|access-date=26 July 2018|archive-date=26 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180726201624/https://www.engagemobile.com/goldman-sachs-report-how-the-internet-of-things-can-save-the-american-healthcare-system-305-billion-annually/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Moreover, the use of mobile devices to support medical follow-up led to the creation of 'm-health', used analyzed health statistics."<ref>{{cite web |last1=World Health Organization |title=mHealth. New horizons for health through mobile technologies |url=https://www.who.int/goe/publications/goe_mhealth_web.pdf|website=World Health Organization |access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref>

Specialized sensors can also be equipped within living spaces to monitor the health and general well-being of senior citizens, while also ensuring that proper treatment is being administered and assisting people to regain lost mobility via therapy as well.<ref name="mHealth">{{Cite book|last1=Istepanian|first1=R.|title=2011 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society|volume=2011|last2=Hu|first2=S.|last3=Philip|first3=N.|last4=Sungoor|first4=A.|chapter=The potential of Internet of m-health Things "m-IoT" for non-invasive glucose level sensing |s2cid=995488|year=2011 |pages=5264–6|doi=10.1109/IEMBS.2011.6091302|pmid=22255525|isbn=978-1-4577-1589-1|chapter-url=https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/2134/22172}}</ref> These sensors create a network of [[intelligent sensor]]s that are able to collect, process, transfer, and analyze valuable information in different environments, such as connecting in-home monitoring devices to hospital-based systems.<ref name="auto2"/> Other consumer devices to encourage healthy living, such as connected scales or [[Wearable technology|wearable heart monitors]], are also a possibility with the IoT.<ref name="SensorMania">{{cite journal|last1=Swan|first1=Melanie|date=8 November 2012|title=Sensor Mania! The Internet of Things, Wearable Computing, Objective Metrics, and the Quantified Self 2.0|journal= Journal of Sensor and Actuator Networks|volume=1|issue=3|pages=217–253|doi=10.3390/jsan1030217|doi-access=free}}</ref> End-to-end health monitoring IoT platforms are also available for antenatal and chronic patients, helping one manage health vitals and recurring medication requirements.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Taiwan Information Strategy, Internet and E-commerce Development Handbook - Strategic Information, Regulations, Contacts|publisher=IBP, Inc. USA|year=2016|isbn=978-1514521021|pages=79}}</ref>

Advances in plastic and fabric electronics fabrication methods have enabled ultra-low cost, use-and-throw&nbsp;IoMT sensors. These sensors, along with the required [[RFID]] electronics, can be fabricated on [[paper]] or [[e-textiles]] for wireless powered disposable sensing devices.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grell|first1=Max|last2=Dincer|first2=Can|last3=Le|first3=Thao|last4=Lauri|first4=Alberto|last5=Nunez Bajo|first5=Estefania|last6=Kasimatis|first6=Michael|last7=Barandun|first7=Giandrin|last8=Maier|first8=Stefan A.|last9=Cass|first9=Anthony E. G.|title=Autocatalytic Metallization of Fabrics Using Si Ink, for Biosensors, Batteries and Energy Harvesting|journal=Advanced Functional Materials|volume=29|language=en|pages=1804798|doi=10.1002/adfm.201804798|issn=1616-301X|year=2019|issue=1|pmid=32733177|pmc=7384005|doi-access=free}}</ref> Applications have been established for [[Point-of-care testing|point-of-care medical diagnostics]], where portability and low system-complexity is essential.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Dincer|first1=Can|last2=Bruch|first2=Richard|last3=Kling|first3=André|last4=Dittrich|first4=Petra S.|last5=Urban|first5=Gerald A.|date=1 August 2017|title=Multiplexed Point-of-Care Testing – xPOCT|journal=Trends in Biotechnology|language=en|volume=35|issue=8|pages=728–742|doi=10.1016/j.tibtech.2017.03.013|pmid=28456344|pmc=5538621|issn=0167-7799}}</ref>

{{as of|2018}} IoMT was not only being applied in the [[clinical laboratory]] industry,<ref name=ClinLab/> but also in the healthcare and health insurance industries. IoMT in the [[healthcare industry]] is now permitting doctors, patients, and others, such as guardians of patients, nurses, families, and similar, to be part of a system, where patient records are saved in a database, allowing doctors and the rest of the medical staff to have access to patient information.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.healthit.gov/topic/health-it-and-health-information-exchange-basics/what-hie|title=What is HIE? {{!}} HealthIT.gov|website=www.healthit.gov|access-date=2020-01-21}}</ref> 

IoT devices within healthcare are structured in a multi-layered architecture.<ref name=":7">Rogge, G; Bohnet-Joschko, S (2024), [https://www.atlas-digitale-gesundheitswirtschaft.de/whitepaper-cybersecurity-atlas/ Cybersecurity: All Hands on Deck in a World of Connected Healthcare.] Whitepaper. ATLAS Innovation and Digitalization in Healthcare, Witten/Herdecke University, Witten</ref> Initially, data is collected from the devices and sensors within the IoT. Subsequently, data is processed and stored within the institution's network.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal |last=Singh |first=Jagbir |date=2024-06-30 |title=Challenges with Medical Devices Connected To Hospital Network |url=https://www.ijraset.com/best-journal/challenges-with-medical-devices-connected-to-hospital-network |journal=International Journal for Research in Applied Science and Engineering Technology |volume=12 |issue=6 |pages=735–749 |doi=10.22214/ijraset.2024.63187|doi-access=free }}</ref> At this point, data becomes accessible for further internal and external procedures.<ref name=":7" /> Simultaneously, data is protected via various cybersecurity measures, such as the [[Principle of least privilege|principle of least privilege (PoLP)]],<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bhukya |first1=Chidambar |last2=Thakur |first2=Prabhat |last3=Mudhivarthi |first3=Bhavesh |last4=Singh |first4=Ghanshyam |date=2023-09-27 |title=Cybersecurity in Internet of Medical Vehicles: State-of-the-Art Analysis, Research Challenges and Future Perspectives |journal=Sensors |language=en |volume=23 |issue=19 |pages=8107 |doi=10.3390/s23198107 |doi-access=free |issn=1424-8220 |pmc=10575081 |pmid=37836937|bibcode=2023Senso..23.8107B }}</ref> data encryption for example, with the [[Advanced Encryption Standard|Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)]],<ref name=":8" /> [[Intrusion detection system|intrusion detection systems (IDS)]], and [[Intrusion Prevention System|intrusion prevention systems (IPS)]].<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Luber |first1=Stefan |last2=Schmitz |first2=Peter |date=31 May 2017 |title=Was ist ein Intrusion Prevention System (IPS)? |url=https://www.security-insider.de/was-ist-ein-intrusion-prevention-system-ips-a-612859/ |access-date=4 December 2024 |website=SECURITY INSIDER}}</ref> Lastly, data can be accessed by users on workstations or portable devices through applications like [[Patient management software|patient management software (PMS)]].<ref name=":7" />

IoMT in the insurance industry provides access to better and new types of dynamic information. This includes sensor-based solutions such as biosensors, wearables, connected health devices, and mobile apps to track customer behavior. This can lead to more accurate underwriting and new pricing models.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Amiot |first1=Emmanuel |title=The Internet of Things. Disrupting Traditional Business Models |url=https://www.oliverwyman.com/content/dam/oliver-wyman/global/en/2015/jun/2015_OliverWyman_Internet-of-Things.pdf |website=Oliver Wyman |access-date=14 October 2018}}</ref>

The application of the IoT in healthcare plays a fundamental role in managing [[chronic disease]]s and in disease prevention and control. Remote monitoring is made possible through the connection of powerful wireless solutions. The connectivity enables health practitioners to capture patient's data and apply complex algorithms in health data analysis.<ref>Vermesan, Ovidiu, and Peter Friess, eds. Internet of things: converging technologies for smart environments and integrated ecosystems. River Publisher, 2013. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/272943881</ref>

====Transportation====
[[File:Nová Povltavská, Hoří v tunelu (01).jpg|thumb|Digital variable speed-limit sign]]
The IoT can assist in the integration of communications, control, and information processing across various [[Intelligent transportation system|transportation systems]]. Application of the IoT extends to all aspects of transportation systems (i.e., the vehicle,<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Mahmud|first1=Khizir|last2=Town|first2=Graham E.|last3=Morsalin|first3=Sayidul|last4=Hossain|first4=M.J.|date=February 2018|title=Integration of electric vehicles and management in the internet of energy|journal=Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews|volume=82|pages=4179–4203|doi=10.1016/j.rser.2017.11.004|bibcode=2018RSERv..82.4179M }}</ref> the infrastructure, and the driver or user). Dynamic interaction between these components of a transport system enables inter- and intra-vehicular communication,<ref name="XieTRB17">{{cite journal|last1=Xie|first1=Xiao-Feng|last2=Wang|first2=Zun-Jing|date=2017|title=Integrated in-vehicle decision support system for driving at signalized intersections: A prototype of smart IoT in transportation|url=https://trid.trb.org/view.aspx?id=1437314|journal=Transportation Research Board (TRB) Annual Meeting, Washington, DC, USA}}</ref> [[Smart traffic light|smart traffic control]], smart parking, [[Electronic toll collection|electronic toll collection systems]], [[logistics]] and [[fleet management]], [[Autonomous cruise control system|vehicle control]], safety, and road assistance.<ref name=CoMAN /><ref name="SmartIoT2017">{{cite web|url=http://www.wiomax.com/what-can-the-smart-iot-transform-transportation-and-smart-cities/|title=Key Applications of the Smart IoT to Transform Transportation|date=20 September 2016}}</ref>

====V2X communications====
{{Main|V2X}}
In [[vehicular communication systems]], [[vehicle-to-everything]] communication (V2X), consists of three main components: vehicle-to-vehicle communication (V2V), vehicle-to-infrastructure communication (V2I) and vehicle to pedestrian communications (V2P). V2X is the first step to [[Autonomous car|autonomous driving]] and connected road infrastructure.<ref>{{Cite web |title=V2V and V2X Technology Paves the Way for Autonomous Driving {{!}} ASSEMBLY |url=https://www.assemblymag.com/articles/98013-v2v-and-v2x-technology-paves-the-way-for-autonomous-driving |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=www.assemblymag.com |language=en}}</ref>

====Home automation====
IoT devices can be used to monitor and control the mechanical, electrical and electronic systems used in various types of buildings (e.g., public and private, industrial, institutions, or residential)<ref name="CoMAN" /> in [[home automation]] and [[building automation]] systems. In this context, three main areas are being covered in literature:<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |doi = 10.1109/INDIN.2016.7819322|chapter = The IOT mediated built environment: A brief survey|title = 2016 IEEE 14th International Conference on Industrial Informatics (INDIN)|pages = 1065–1068|year = 2016|last1 = Haase|first1 = Jan|last2 = Alahmad|first2 = Mahmoud|last3 = Nishi|first3 = Hiroaki|last4 = Ploennigs|first4 = Joern|last5 = Tsang|first5 = Kim Fung|s2cid = 5554635|isbn = 978-1-5090-2870-2}}</ref>

* The integration of the Internet with building energy management systems to create energy-efficient and IOT-driven "smart buildings".<ref name=":0" />
* The possible means of real-time monitoring for reducing energy consumption<ref name="IoTEnergyKettle" /> and monitoring occupant behaviors.<ref name=":0" />
* The integration of smart devices in the built environment and how they might be used in future applications.<ref name=":0" />

===Industrial===
{{Main|Industrial internet of things}}
Also known as IIoT, industrial IoT devices acquire and analyze data from connected equipment, operational technology (OT), locations, and people. Combined with [[operational technology]] (OT) monitoring devices, IIoT helps regulate and monitor industrial systems.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.thegeekcubes.com/technology/2021/06/everything-you-need-to-know-about-iot-industrial-internet-of-things/|title=Everything You Need to Know About IoT & Industrial Internet of Things|access-date=2022-07-05|archive-date=24 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220124130714/https://www.thegeekcubes.com/technology/2021/06/everything-you-need-to-know-about-iot-industrial-internet-of-things/|url-status=dead}}</ref> Also, the same implementation can be carried out for automated record updates of asset placement in industrial storage units as the size of the assets can vary from a small screw to the whole motor spare part, and misplacement of such assets can cause a loss of manpower time and money.

===={{anchor|IIoT}}Manufacturing====
The IoT can connect various manufacturing devices equipped with sensing, identification, processing, communication, actuation, and networking capabilities.<ref name="IoT-Manufacturing Survey">{{cite journal |last1=Yang |first1=Chen |last2=Shen |first2=Weiming |last3=Wang |first3=Xianbin |s2cid=42651835 |title=The Internet of Things in Manufacturing: Key Issues and Potential Applications |journal=IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Magazine |date=January 2018 |volume=4 |issue=1 |pages=6–15 |doi=10.1109/MSMC.2017.2702391 }}</ref> Network control and management of [[Reconfigurable Manufacturing System|manufacturing equipment]], [[Asset management|asset]] and situation management, or manufacturing [[process control]] allow IoT to be used for industrial applications and smart manufacturing.<ref name="Butler-M2M">{{cite journal |last1=Severi |first1=S. |last2=Abreu |first2=G. |last3=Sottile |first3=F. |last4=Pastrone |first4=C. |last5=Spirito |first5=M. |last6=Berens |first6=F. |title=M2M Technologies: Enablers for a Pervasive Internet of Things |journal=The European Conference on Networks and Communications (EUCNC2014) |date=23–26 June 2014 |url=https://www.academia.edu/6866526}}</ref> IoT intelligent systems enable rapid manufacturing and optimization of new products and rapid response to product demands.<ref name="CoMAN" />

[[Digital control|Digital control systems]] to automate process controls, operator tools and service information systems to optimize plant safety and security are within the purview of the [[IIoT]].<ref name="IoT-Survey">{{cite journal|last1=Gubbi|first1=Jayavardhana|last2=Buyya|first2=Rajkumar|last3=Marusic|first3=Slaven|last4=Palaniswami|first4=Marimuthu|s2cid=204982032|date=24 February 2013|title=Internet of Things (IoT): A vision, architectural elements, and future directions|journal=Future Generation Computer Systems|volume=29|issue=7|pages=1645–1660|arxiv=1207.0203|doi=10.1016/j.future.2013.01.010}}</ref> IoT can also be applied to asset management via [[predictive maintenance]], [[Statistical model|statistical evaluation]], and measurements to maximize reliability.<ref name="Future-IoT">{{Cite book |last1=Tan |first1=Lu |last2=Wang |first2=Neng |title=2010 3rd International Conference on Advanced Computer Theory and Engineering(ICACTE) |chapter=Future internet: The Internet of Things |date=20–22 August 2010 |volume=5 |pages=376–380 |doi=10.1109/ICACTE.2010.5579543 |isbn=978-1-4244-6539-2|s2cid=40587 }}</ref> Industrial management systems can be integrated with [[smart grid]]s, enabling energy optimization. Measurements, automated controls, plant optimization, health and safety management, and other functions are provided by networked sensors.<ref name="CoMAN" />

In addition to general manufacturing, IoT is also used for processes in the industrialization of construction.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Industrialized Construction in Academia|url=https://damassets.autodesk.net/content/dam/autodesk/www/pdfs/autodesk-industrialized-construction-report.pdf|journal=Autodesk}}</ref>

====Agriculture====
There are numerous IoT applications in farming<ref name="MeolaWhy16">{{cite web |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/internet-of-things-smart-agriculture-2016-10 |title=Why IoT, big data & smart farming are the future of agriculture |author=Meola, A. |work=Business Insider |publisher=Insider, Inc. |date=20 December 2016 |access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref> such as collecting data on temperature, rainfall, humidity, wind speed, pest infestation, and soil content. This data can be used to automate farming techniques, take informed decisions to improve quality and quantity, minimize risk and waste, and reduce the effort required to manage crops. For example, farmers can now monitor soil temperature and moisture from afar and even apply IoT-acquired data to precision fertilization programs.<ref name="ZhangPrecision15">{{cite book |url={{Google books|vHi9CgAAQBAJ|page=PA249|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Precision Agriculture Technology for Crop Farming |author=Zhang, Q. |publisher=CRC Press |pages=249–58 |year=2015 |isbn=9781482251081}}</ref> The overall goal is that data from sensors, coupled with the farmer's knowledge and intuition about his or her farm, can help increase farm productivity, and also help reduce costs.

In August 2018, [[Toyota Tsusho]] began a partnership with [[Microsoft]] to create [[fish farming]] tools using the [[Microsoft Azure]] application suite for IoT technologies related to water management. Developed in part by researchers from [[Kindai University]], the water pump mechanisms use [[artificial intelligence]] to count the number of fish on a [[conveyor belt]], analyze the number of fish, and deduce the effectiveness of water flow from the data the fish provide.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2018/09/01/ai_roundup_310818/|title=Google goes bilingual, Facebook fleshes out translation and TensorFlow is dope ~ And, Microsoft is assisting fish farmers in Japan|website=[[The Register]]}}</ref> The FarmBeats project<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Vasisht|first1=Deepak|last2=Kapetanovic|first2=Zerina|last3=Won|first3=Jongho|last4=Jin|first4=Xinxin|last5=Chandra|first5=Ranveer|last6=Sinha|first6=Sudipta|last7=Kapoor|first7=Ashish|last8=Sudarshan|first8=Madhusudhan|last9=Stratman|first9=Sean|date=2017|title=FarmBeats: An IoT Platform for Data-Driven Agriculture|url=https://www.usenix.org/conference/nsdi17/technical-sessions/presentation/vasisht|language=en|pages=515–529|isbn=978-1-931971-37-9}}</ref> from Microsoft Research that uses TV white space to connect farms is also a part of the Azure Marketplace now.<ref>{{Cite web|title=FarmBeats: AI, Edge & IoT for Agriculture|url=https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/project/farmbeats-iot-agriculture/|access-date=2021-06-28|website=Microsoft Research|language=en-US}}</ref>

==== Maritime ====
IoT devices are in use to monitor the environments and systems of boats and yachts.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=|first=|date=9 March 2020|title=Monitoring apps: How the Internet of Things can turn your boat into a smart boat|url=https://www.yachtingworld.com/features/monitoring-apps-internet-of-things-smart-boat-125303|access-date=|magazine=Yachting World}}</ref> Many pleasure boats are left unattended for days in summer, and months in winter so such devices provide valuable early alerts of boat flooding, fire, and deep discharge of batteries. The use of global internet data networks such as [[Sigfox]], combined with long-life batteries, and microelectronics allows the engine rooms, bilge, and batteries to be constantly monitored and reported to connected Android & Apple applications for example.

=== Infrastructure ===
Monitoring and controlling operations of sustainable urban and rural infrastructures like bridges, railway tracks and on- and offshore wind farms is a key application of the IoT.<ref name="IoT-Survey" /> The IoT infrastructure can be used for monitoring any events or changes in structural conditions that can compromise safety and increase risk. The IoT can benefit the construction industry by cost-saving, time reduction, better quality workday, paperless workflow and increase in productivity. It can help in taking faster decisions and saving money in Real-Time [[Data Analytics]]. It can also be used for scheduling repair and maintenance activities efficiently, by coordinating tasks between different service providers and users of these facilities.<ref name="CoMAN" /> IoT devices can also be used to control critical infrastructure like bridges to provide access to ships. The usage of IoT devices for monitoring and operating infrastructure is likely to improve incident management and emergency response coordination, and [[quality of service]], [[Uptime|up-times]] and reduce costs of operation in all infrastructure-related areas.<ref name="IoT-McKinsey">{{cite news|url=http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/high_tech_telecoms_internet/the_internet_of_things|title=The Internet of Things|last1=Chui|first1=Michael|work=McKinsey Quarterly|access-date=10 July 2014|agency=McKinsey & Company|last2=Löffler|first2=Markus|last3=Roberts|first3=Roger|archive-date=14 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150314064724/http://www.mckinsey.com/insights/high_tech_telecoms_internet/the_internet_of_things|url-status=dead}}</ref> Even areas such as waste management can benefit.<ref name="SmartTrash">{{cite web|url=http://postscapes.com/smart-trash|title=Smart Trash|work=Postscapes|access-date=10 July 2014}}</ref>

==== Metropolitan scale deployments ====
There are several planned or ongoing large-scale deployments of the IoT, to enable better management of cities and systems. For example, [[Songdo]], South Korea, the first of its kind fully equipped and wired [[smart city]], is gradually being built{{when|date=September 2023}}, with approximately 70 percent of the business district completed {{as of|2018|June|lc=y}}. Much of the city is planned to be wired and automated, with little or no human intervention.<ref name="PoonSleepy18">{{cite news |url=https://www.citylab.com/life/2018/06/sleepy-in-songdo-koreas-smartest-city/561374/ |title=Sleepy in Songdo, Korea's Smartest City |author=Poon, L. |work=CityLab |publisher=Atlantic Monthly Group |date=22 June 2018 |access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref>

In 2014 another application was undergoing a project in [[Santander, Spain|Santander]], Spain. For this deployment, two approaches have been adopted. This city of 180,000 inhabitants has already seen 18,000 downloads of its city smartphone app. The app is connected to 10,000 sensors that enable services like parking search, and environmental monitoring. City context information is used in this deployment so as to benefit merchants through a spark deals mechanism based on city behavior that aims at maximizing the impact of each notification.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Rico |first1=Juan |title=Going beyond monitoring and actuating in large scale smart cities |journal=NFC & Proximity Solutions – WIMA Monaco |date=22–24 April 2014}}</ref>

Other examples of large-scale deployments underway include the Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City;<ref>{{cite web |work=Sino-Singapore Guangzhou Knowledge City |title=A vision for a city today, a city of vision tomorrow |url=http://www.ssgkc.com |access-date=11 July 2014}}</ref> work on improving air and water quality, reducing noise pollution, and increasing transportation efficiency in San Jose, California;<ref>{{cite web |title=San Jose Implements Intel Technology for a Smarter City |url=http://newsroom.intel.com/community/intel_newsroom/blog/2014/06/11/san-jose-implements-intel-technology-for-a-smarter-city |work=Intel Newsroom |access-date=11 July 2014}}</ref> and smart traffic management in western Singapore.<ref>{{cite web |work=Coconuts Singapore |title=Western Singapore becomes test-bed for smart city solutions |url=http://singapore.coconuts.co/2014/06/19/western-singapore-becomes-test-bed-smart-city-solutions |access-date=11 July 2014|date=19 June 2014 }}</ref> Using its RPMA (Random Phase Multiple Access) technology, San Diego–based [[Ingenu]] has built a nationwide public network<ref name="Fortune">{{cite web |last1=Higginbotham |first1=Stacey |title=A group of wireless execs aim to build a nationwide network for the Internet of things |url=http://fortune.com/2015/09/11/ingenu-machine-network/ |website=Fortune.com |access-date=8 June 2019}}</ref> for low-[[Bandwidth (computing)|bandwidth]] data transmissions using the same unlicensed 2.4 gigahertz spectrum as Wi-Fi. Ingenu's "Machine Network" covers more than a third of the US population across 35 major cities including San Diego and Dallas.<ref name="The San Diego Union-Tribune">{{cite web |last1=Freeman |first1=Mike |title=On-Ramp Wireless becomes Ingenu, launches nationwide IoT network |url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/business/technology/sdut-on-ramp-verizon-ingenu-internet-of-things-att-2015sep09-story.html|website=SanDiegoUnionTribune.com |access-date=8 June 2019|date=9 September 2015 }}</ref> French company, [[Sigfox]], commenced building an [[Ultra Narrowband]] wireless data network in the [[San Francisco Bay Area]] in 2014, the first business to achieve such a deployment in the U.S.<ref name="EETimes">{{cite web |last1=Lipsky |first1=Jessica |title=IoT Clash Over 900 MHz Options |url=http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1326599 |website=EETimes |access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Fierce Wireless Tech">{{cite web |last1=Alleven |first1=Monica |title=Sigfox launches IoT network in 10 UK cities |url=http://www.fiercewireless.com/tech/story/sigfox-launches-iot-network-10-uk-cities/2014-12-13 |website=Fierce Wireless Tech |access-date=13 May 2015}}</ref> It subsequently announced it would set up a total of 4000 [[base station]]s to cover a total of 30 cities in the U.S. by the end of 2016, making it the largest IoT network coverage provider in the country thus far.<ref name="EETimes2">{{cite web |last1=Merritt |first1=Rick |title=13 Views of IoT World |url=http://www.eetimes.com/document.asp?doc_id=1326596 |website=EETimes |access-date=15 May 2015}}</ref><ref name="Gigaom2">{{cite web |last1=Fitchard |first1=Kevin |title=Sigfox brings its internet of things network to San Francisco |url=https://gigaom.com/2014/05/20/sigfox-brings-its-internet-of-things-network-to-san-francisco/ |website=Gigaom |access-date=15 May 2015 |date=20 May 2014 |archive-date=25 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150525214134/https://gigaom.com/2014/05/20/sigfox-brings-its-internet-of-things-network-to-san-francisco/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> Cisco also participates in smart cities projects. Cisco has deployed technologies for Smart Wi-Fi, Smart Safety & Security, [[Smart Lighting]], Smart Parking, Smart Transports, Smart Bus Stops, Smart Kiosks, Remote Expert for Government Services (REGS) and Smart Education in the five km area in the city of Vijaywada, India.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cisco To Invest in Fiber Grid, IoT, Smart Cities in Andhra Pradesh|last=Ujaley|first=Mohd|date=25 July 2018|url=https://www.expresscomputer.in/news/cisco-to-invest-in-fiber-grid-iot-smart-cities-in-andhra-pradesh/16750/|id = {{ProQuest|1774166769}}}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |publisher=News Desk Geospatial World |date=2017-10-27 |title=Cisco helps Vijayawada create India's longest smart street |url=https://www.geospatialworld.net/news/cisco-helps-vijayawada-create-indias-longest-smart-street/ |access-date=2024-02-21 |language=en-US}}</ref>

Another example of a large deployment is the one completed by New York Waterways in New York City to connect all the city's vessels and be able to monitor them live 24/7. The network was designed and engineered by [[Fluidmesh Networks]], a Chicago-based company developing wireless networks for critical applications. The NYWW network is currently providing coverage on the Hudson River, East River, and Upper New York Bay. With the wireless network in place, NY Waterway is able to take control of its fleet and passengers in a way that was not previously possible. New applications can include security, energy and fleet management, digital signage, public Wi-Fi, paperless ticketing and others.<ref>{{cite web |title=STE Security Innovation Awards Honorable Mention: The End of the Disconnect |url=http://www.securityinfowatch.com/article/10840006/ste-security-innovation-awards-honorable-mention-the-end-of-the-disconnect |work=securityinfowatch.com |date=10 December 2012 |access-date=12 August 2015}}</ref>

==== Energy management ====
Significant numbers of energy-consuming devices (e.g. lamps, household appliances, motors, pumps, etc.) already integrate Internet connectivity, which can allow them to communicate with utilities not only to balance [[power generation]] but also helps optimize the energy consumption as a whole.<ref name="CoMAN" /> These devices allow for remote control by users, or central management via a [[Cloud computing|cloud]]-based interface, and enable functions like scheduling (e.g., remotely powering on or off heating systems, controlling ovens, changing lighting conditions etc.).<ref name="CoMAN" /> The [[smart grid]] is a utility-side IoT application; systems gather and act on energy and power-related information to improve the efficiency of the production and distribution of electricity.<ref name="EMAN">{{cite journal|last1=Parello|first1=J.|last2=Claise|first2=B.|last3=Schoening|first3=B.|last4=Quittek|first4=J.|date=28 April 2014|title=Energy Management Framework|url=http://tools.ietf.org/html/draft-ietf-eman-framework-19|journal=IETF}}</ref> Using [[smart meter|advanced metering infrastructure (AMI)]] Internet-connected devices, electric utilities not only collect data from end-users, but also manage distribution automation devices like transformers.<ref name="CoMAN" />

==== Environmental monitoring ====
[[Environmental monitoring]] applications of the IoT typically use sensors to assist in environmental protection<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.extremetech.com/extreme/209715-how-the-internet-of-things-will-enable-smart-buildings|title=How the Internet of Things will enable 'smart buildings'|last=Davies|first=Nicola|website=Extreme Tech|date=14 July 2015 }}</ref> by monitoring [[Air quality|air]] or [[water quality]],<ref name="MolluSCAN eye">{{cite web|url=http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en%2F|title=Molluscan eye|access-date=26 June 2015|archive-date=12 November 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161112225008/http://molluscan-eye.epoc.u-bordeaux1.fr/index.php?rubrique=accueil&lang=en%2F|url-status=dead}}</ref> [[Air pollution|atmospheric]] or [[Soil pollution|soil conditions]],<ref name="IoT-EnvProt">{{Cite book|last1=Li|first1=Shixing|last2=Wang|first2=Hong|last3=Xu|first3=Tao|last4=Zhou|first4=Guiping|title=Informatics in Control, Automation and Robotics |chapter=Application Study on Internet of Things in Environment Protection Field |date=2011|series=Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering|volume=133|pages=99–106|doi=10.1007/978-3-642-25992-0_13|isbn=978-3-642-25991-3|url=http://ir.sia.cn/handle/173321/10234|type=Submitted manuscript|access-date=7 November 2018|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226155019/http://ir.sia.cn/handle/173321/10234|url-status=dead}}</ref> and can even include areas like monitoring the [[Animal migration tracking|movements of wildlife]] and their [[habitat]]s.<ref name="FIT">{{cite web|url=http://fit-equipex.fr/use-cases/23-use-case-sensitive-wildlife-monitoring|title=Use case: Sensitive wildlife monitoring|work=FIT French Project|access-date=10 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714124750/http://fit-equipex.fr/use-cases/23-use-case-sensitive-wildlife-monitoring|archive-date=14 July 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref> Development of resource-constrained devices connected to the Internet also means that other applications like [[Earthquake warning system|earthquake]] or [[Tsunami warning system|tsunami early-warning systems]] can also be used by emergency services to provide more effective aid. IoT devices in this application typically span a large geographic area and can also be mobile.<ref name="CoMAN" /> It has been argued that the standardization that IoT brings to wireless sensing will revolutionize this area.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Hart|first1=Jane K.|last2=Martinez|first2=Kirk|date=1 May 2015|title=Toward an environmental Internet of Things|journal=Earth and Space Science|volume=2|issue=5|pages=194–200|bibcode=2015E&SS....2..194H|doi=10.1002/2014EA000044|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==== Living Lab ====

Another example of integrating the IoT is Living Lab which integrates and combines research and innovation processes, establishing within a public-private-people-partnership.<ref name="Scuotto 357–367">{{Cite journal|last1=Scuotto|first1=Veronica|last2=Ferraris|first2=Alberto|last3=Bresciani|first3=Stefano|date=4 April 2016|title=Internet of Things|journal=Business Process Management Journal|language=en|volume=22|issue=2|pages=357–367|doi=10.1108/bpmj-05-2015-0074|issn=1463-7154}}</ref> Between 2006 and January 2024, there were over 440 Living Labs (though not all are currently active)<ref>{{cite web |title=Living Labs - European Network of Living Labs |date=31 August 2017 |publisher=enoll.org|url=https://enoll.org/network/living-labs/ |access-date=13 January 2024}}</ref> that use the IoT to collaborate and share knowledge between stakeholders to co-create innovative and technological products. For companies to implement and develop IoT services<ref>[https://thinkpalm.com/technologies/internet-of-things/ IoT services]</ref> for smart cities, they need to have incentives. The governments play key roles in smart city projects as changes in policies will help cities to implement the IoT which provides effectiveness, efficiency, and accuracy of the resources that are being used. For instance, the government provides tax incentives and cheap rent, improves public transports, and offers an environment where start-up companies, creative industries, and multinationals may co-create, share a common infrastructure and labor markets, and take advantage of locally embedded technologies, production process, and transaction costs.<ref name="Scuotto 357–367"/>

=== Military ===
{{Main|Internet of Military Things}}
The [[Internet of Military Things|Internet of Military Things (IoMT)]] is the application of IoT technologies in the military domain for the purposes of reconnaissance, surveillance, and other combat-related objectives. It is heavily influenced by the future prospects of warfare in an urban environment and involves the use of sensors, [[munitions]], vehicles, robots, human-wearable biometrics, and other smart technology that is relevant on the battlefield.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.computer.org/publications/tech-news/research/internet-of-military-battlefield-things-iomt-iobt|title=Internet of Things Meets the Military and Battlefield: Connecting Gear and Biometric Wearables for an IoMT and IoBT|last=Cameron|first=Lori|website=IEEE Computer Society|date=March 2018 |access-date=October 31, 2019}}</ref>

One of the examples of IOT devices used in the military is Xaver 1000 system. The Xaver 1000 was developed by Israel's Camero Tech, which is the latest in the company's line of "through wall imaging systems". The Xaver line uses millimeter wave (MMW) radar, or radar in the range of 30-300 gigahertz. It is equipped with an AI-based life target tracking system as well as its own 3D 'sense-through-the-wall' technology.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Mizokami |first1=Kyle |title=This AI-Enabled Tech Allows Troops to See Through Walls |url=https://www.popularmechanics.com/military/weapons/a40450717/tech-allows-troops-to-see-through-walls |website=Popular Mechanics |access-date=18 April 2023 |language=en-us |date=7 July 2022}}</ref>

==== Internet of Battlefield Things ====
The '''Internet of Battlefield Things''' ('''IoBT''') is a project initiated and executed by the [[United States Army Research Laboratory|U.S. Army Research Laboratory (ARL)]] that focuses on the basic science related to the IoT that enhance the capabilities of Army soldiers.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.meritalk.com/articles/army-takes-on-wicked-problems-with-the-internet-of-battlefield-things/|title=Army Takes on Wicked Problems With the Internet of Battlefield Things|date=January 30, 2018|work=MeriTalk|access-date=October 31, 2019}}</ref> In 2017, ARL launched the [[IoBT-CRA|Internet of Battlefield Things Collaborative Research Alliance (IoBT-CRA)]], establishing a working collaboration between industry, university, and Army researchers to advance the theoretical foundations of IoT technologies and their applications to Army operations.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ece.illinois.edu/newsroom/article/23747|title=Next-Generation Internet of Battle things (IoBT) Aims to Help Keep Troops and Civilians Safe|last=Gudeman|first=Kim|date=October 6, 2017|website=ECE Illinois|access-date=October 31, 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.arl.army.mil/www/default.cfm?page=3050|title=Internet of Battlefield Things (IOBT)|website=CCDC Army Research Laboratory|access-date=October 31, 2019}}</ref>

==== Ocean of Things ====
The '''Ocean of Things''' project is a [[DARPA]]-led program designed to establish an Internet of things across large ocean areas for the purposes of collecting, monitoring, and analyzing environmental and vessel activity data. The project entails the deployment of about 50,000 floats that house a passive sensor suite that autonomously detect and track military and commercial vessels as part of a cloud-based network.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.meritalk.com/articles/darpa-floats-a-proposal-for-the-ocean-of-things/|title=DARPA Floats a Proposal for the Ocean of Things|date=January 3, 2018|work=MeriTalk|access-date=October 31, 2019}}</ref>

=== Product digitalization ===
There are several applications of smart or [[active packaging]] in which a [[QR code]] or [[NFC tag]] is affixed on a product or its packaging. The tag itself is passive, however, it contains a [[unique identifier]] (typically a [[URL]]) which enables a user to access digital content about the product via a smartphone.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.packagingdigest.com/smart-packaging/how-to-make-smart-packaging-even-smarter-2018-06-04|title=How to make smart packaging even smarter|date=2018-06-04|website=Packaging Digest|language=en|access-date=2020-04-28}}</ref> Strictly speaking, such passive items are not part of the Internet of things, but they can be seen as enablers of digital interactions.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.foodnavigator-asia.com/Article/2019/06/18/Connecting-with-consumers-The-benefits-and-dangers-of-smart-packaging-for-the-F-B-industry|title=Connecting with consumers: The benefits - and dangers - of smart packaging for the F&B industry|website=foodnavigator-asia.com|date=18 June 2019 |language=en-GB|access-date=2020-04-28}}</ref> The term "Internet of Packaging" has been coined to describe applications in which unique identifiers are used, to automate supply chains, and are scanned on large scale by consumers to access digital content.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.confectionerynews.com/Article/2018/07/18/Which-smart-packaging-technologies-are-readily-available-in-2018|title=Which smart packaging technologies are readily available in 2018|website=confectionerynews.com|date=18 July 2018 |language=en-GB|access-date=2020-04-28}}</ref> Authentication of the unique identifiers, and thereby of the product itself, is possible via a copy-sensitive [[digital watermark]] or [[copy detection pattern]] for scanning when scanning a QR code,<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Changsheng|last2=Li|first2=Mulin|last3=Ferreira|first3=Anselmo|last4=Huang|first4=Jiwu|last5=Cai|first5=Rizhao|date=2020|title=A Copy-Proof Scheme Based on the Spectral and Spatial Barcoding Channel Models|journal=IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security|volume=15|pages=1056–1071|doi=10.1109/tifs.2019.2934861|s2cid=201903693|issn=1556-6013}}</ref> while NFC tags can encrypt communication.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.securingindustry.com/electronics-and-industrial/mit-unveils-battery-free-crypto-tag-for-anti-counterfeit/s105/a11381/|title=MIT unveils battery-free crypto tag for anti-counterfeit|date=2020-02-26|website=www.securingindustry.com|access-date=2020-04-28}}</ref>

==Trends and characteristics==
The IoT's major significant trend in recent years{{when|date=September 2023}} is the growth of devices connected and controlled via the Internet.<ref name="auto3">{{cite journal|url=https://spectrum.ieee.org/popular-internet-of-things-forecast-of-50-billion-devices-by-2020-is-outdated |title=Popular Internet of Things Forecast of 50 Billion Devices by 2020 Is Outdated |first=Amy |last=Nordrum |date=18 August 2016 |journal=IEEE Spectrum}}</ref> The wide range of applications for IoT technology mean that the specifics can be very different from one device to the next but there are basic characteristics shared by most.

The IoT creates opportunities for more direct integration of the physical world into computer-based systems, resulting in efficiency improvements, economic benefits, and reduced human exertions.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://www.internet-of-things-research.eu/pdf/Converging_Technologies_for_Smart_Environments_and_Integrated_Ecosystems_IERC_Book_Open_Access_2013.pdf|title=Internet of Things: Converging Technologies for Smart Environments and Integrated Ecosystems|last1=Vermesan|first1=Ovidiu|last2=Friess|first2=Peter|publisher=River Publishers|year=2013|isbn=978-87-92982-96-4|location=Aalborg, Denmark}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://cordis.europa.eu/fp7/ict/enet/documents/publications/iot-between-the-internet-revolution.pdf|title=The Internet of Things: Between the Revolution of the Internet and the Metamorphosis of Objects|last=Santucci|first=Gérald|website=European Commission Community Research and Development Information Service|access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.vs.inf.ethz.ch/publ/papers/Internet-of-things.pdf|title=From the Internet of Computers to the Internet of Things|last1=Mattern|first1=Friedemann|last2=Floerkemeier|first2=Christian|website=[[ETH Zurich]]|access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://connectedworld.com/the-supply-chain-changing-at-the-speed-of-technology/|title=The Supply Chain: Changing at the Speed of Technology|last=Lindner|first=Tim|date=13 July 2015|work=Connected World|access-date=18 September 2015|archive-date=22 August 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150822005502/http://connectedworld.com/the-supply-chain-changing-at-the-speed-of-technology/|url-status=dead}}</ref>

IoT Analytics reported there were 16.6 billion IoT devices connected in 2023. In 2020, the same firm projected there would be 30 billion devices connected by 2025. As of October, 2024, there are around 17 billion.<ref>{{cite web |title=Connected IoT device market update—Summer 2024 |url=https://iot-analytics.com/number-connected-iot-devices/ |website=IoT Analytics |date=3 September 2024 |access-date=8 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=State of the IoT 2020: 12 billion IoT connections, surpassing non-IoT for the first time |url=https://iot-analytics.com/state-of-the-iot-2020-12-billion-iot-connections-surpassing-non-iot-for-the-first-time/ |website=IoT Analytics |date=19 November 2020 |access-date=8 October 2024}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Duarte |first1=Fabio |title=Number of IoT Devices (2024) |url=https://explodingtopics.com/blog/number-of-iot-devices |website=Exploding Topics |date=22 February 2023 |access-date=8 October 2024}}</ref>

===Intelligence===
[[Ambient intelligence]] and autonomous control are not part of the original concept of the Internet of things. Ambient intelligence and autonomous control do not necessarily require Internet structures, either. However, there is a shift in research (by companies such as [[Intel]]) to integrate the concepts of the IoT and autonomous control, with initial outcomes towards this direction considering objects as the driving force for autonomous IoT.<ref name="GDRSmarter18">{{cite web |url=http://gdruk.com/smarter-things-autonomous-iot/ |title=Smarter Things: The Autonomous IoT |work=GDR Blog |publisher=GDR Creative Intelligence |date=5 January 2018 |access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref> An approach in this context is [[reinforcement learning|deep reinforcement learning]] where most of IoT systems provide a dynamic and interactive environment.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Levine |first1=Sergey |last2=Finn |first2=Chelsea |author-link2=Chelsea Finn |last3=Darrell |first3=Trevor |last4=Abbeel |first4=Pieter |year=2016 |title=End-to-End Training of Deep Visuomotor Policies |url=http://www.jmlr.org/papers/volume17/15-522/15-522.pdf |journal=The Journal of Machine Learning Research |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=1334–1373 |arxiv=1504.00702 |bibcode=2015arXiv150400702L}}</ref> Training an agent (i.e., IoT device) to behave smartly in such an environment cannot be addressed by conventional machine learning algorithms such as [[supervised learning]]. By reinforcement learning approach, a learning agent can sense the environment's state (e.g., sensing home temperature), perform actions (e.g., turn [[HVAC]] on or off) and learn through the maximizing accumulated rewards it receives in long term.

IoT intelligence can be offered at three levels: IoT devices, [[Fog computing|Edge/Fog nodes]], and [[cloud computing]].<ref name="deep_learning_iot">{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1109/COMST.2018.2844341|title = Deep Learning for IoT Big Data and Streaming Analytics: A Survey|journal = IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials|volume = 20|issue = 4|pages = 2923–2960|year = 2018|last1 = Mohammadi|first1 = Mehdi|last2 = Al-Fuqaha|first2 = Ala|last3 = Sorour|first3 = Sameh|last4 = Guizani|first4 = Mohsen|s2cid = 9461213|arxiv = 1712.04301}}</ref> The need for intelligent control and decision at each level depends on the time sensitiveness of the IoT application. For example, an autonomous vehicle's camera needs to make real-time [[obstacle detection]] to avoid an accident. This fast decision making would not be possible through transferring data from the vehicle to cloud instances and return the predictions back to the vehicle. Instead, all the operation should be performed locally in the vehicle. Integrating advanced machine learning algorithms including [[deep learning]] into IoT devices is an active research area to make smart objects closer to reality. Moreover, it is possible to get the most value out of IoT deployments through analyzing IoT data, extracting hidden information, and predicting control decisions. A wide variety of machine learning techniques have been used in IoT domain ranging from traditional methods such as [[wikt:regression|regression]], [[support vector machine]], and [[random forest]] to advanced ones such as [[convolutional neural networks]], [[LSTM]], and [[Autoencoder|variational autoencoder]].<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.dcan.2017.10.002|title = Machine learning for internet of things data analysis: A survey|journal = Digital Communications and Networks|volume = 4|issue = 3|pages = 161–175|year = 2018|last1 = Mahdavinejad|first1 = Mohammad Saeid|last2 = Rezvan|first2 = Mohammadreza|last3 = Barekatain|first3 = Mohammadamin|last4 = Adibi|first4 = Peyman|last5 = Barnaghi|first5 = Payam|last6 = Sheth|first6 = Amit P.|s2cid = 2666574|bibcode = 2018arXiv180206305S|arxiv = 1802.06305}}</ref><ref name="deep_learning_iot"/>

In the future, the Internet of things may be a non-deterministic and open network in which auto-organized or intelligent entities ([[web service]]s, [[Service-oriented architecture|SOA]] components) and virtual objects (avatars) will be interoperable and able to act independently (pursuing their own objectives or shared ones) depending on the context, circumstances or environments. Autonomous behavior through the collection and reasoning of context information as well as the object's ability to detect changes in the environment (faults affecting sensors) and introduce suitable mitigation measures constitutes a major research trend,<ref name="Alippi2014">{{cite book |first=C. |last=Alippi |url=https://www.springer.com/engineering/electronics/book/978-3-319-05277-9 |title=Intelligence for Embedded Systems |publisher=Springer Verlag |year=2014 |isbn=978-3-319-05278-6}}</ref> clearly needed to provide credibility to the IoT technology. Modern IoT products and solutions in the marketplace use a variety of different technologies to support such [[context-aware]] automation, but more sophisticated forms of intelligence are requested to permit sensor units and intelligent [[cyber-physical system]]s to be deployed in real environments.<ref name="DelicatoSmart18">{{Cite book |url=https://www.journals.elsevier.com/future-generation-computer-systems/call-for-papers/smart-cyber-physical-systems-towards-pervasive-intelligence |title=Smart Cyber-Physical Systems: towards Pervasive Intelligence systems |editor=Delicato, F.C. |editor2=Al-Anbuky, A. |editor3=Wang, K. |work=Future Generation Computer Systems |publisher=Elsevier |date=2018 |access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref>

===Architecture===
{{Expert needed|technology|section|talk=|reason=The information is partially outdated, unclear, and uncited. Requires more details, but not so technical that others won't understand it.|date=July 2018}}
IoT system architecture, in its simplistic view, consists of three tiers: Tier 1: Devices, Tier 2: the [[Edge computing|Edge]] [[Gateway (telecommunications)#IoT gateway|Gateway]], and Tier 3: the Cloud.<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://www.amazon.com/Industrial-Internet-Application-Development-development-ebook/dp/B075V92JW7/|title=Industrial Internet Application Development: Simplify IIoT development using the elasticity of Public Cloud and Native Cloud Services|last1=Traukina|first1=Alena|last2=Thomas|first2=Jayant|last3=Tyagi|first3=Prashant|last4=Reddipalli|first4=Kishore|date=29 September 2018|publisher=Packt Publishing|edition=1st|pages=18|language=en}}</ref> Devices include networked things, such as the sensors and actuators found in IoT equipment, particularly those that use protocols such as [[Modbus]], [[Bluetooth]], [[Zigbee]], or proprietary protocols, to connect to an Edge Gateway.<ref name=":4" /> The Edge Gateway layer consists of sensor data aggregation systems called Edge Gateways that provide functionality, such as pre-processing of the data, securing connectivity to cloud, using systems such as WebSockets, the event hub, and, even in some cases, edge analytics or [[fog computing]].<ref name=":4" /> Edge Gateway layer is also required to give a common view of the devices to the upper layers to facilitate in easier management. The final tier includes the cloud application built for IoT using the microservices architecture, which are usually polyglot and inherently secure in nature using HTTPS/[[OAuth]]. It includes various [[database]] systems that store sensor data, such as time series databases or asset stores using backend data storage systems (e.g. Cassandra, PostgreSQL).<ref name=":4" /> The cloud tier in most cloud-based IoT system features event queuing and messaging system that handles communication that transpires in all tiers.<ref>{{Cite book |title=Internet of Things: Challenges, Advances, and Applications |last1=Hassan |first1=Qusay |last2=Khan |first2=Atta|last3=Madani|first3=Sajjad|publisher=CRC Press|year=2018|isbn=9781498778510|location=Boca Raton, Florida|pages=198}}</ref> Some experts classified the three-tiers in the IoT system as edge, platform, and enterprise and these are connected by proximity network, access network, and service network, respectively.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Internet of Things, for Things, and by Things|last=Chauhuri|first=Abhik|publisher=CRC Press|year=2018|isbn=9781138710443|location=Boca Raton, Florida}}</ref>

Building on the Internet of things, the [[web of things]] is an architecture for the application layer of the Internet of things looking at the convergence of data from IoT devices into Web applications to create innovative use-cases. In order to program and control the flow of information in the Internet of things, a predicted architectural direction is being called [[BPM Everywhere]] which is a blending of traditional process management with process mining and special capabilities to automate the control of large numbers of coordinated devices.{{citation needed|date=May 2017}}

==== Network architecture ====
The Internet of things requires huge scalability in the network space to handle the surge of devices.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://www.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/ComputingNow/issues/2015/07/mit2015030002.pdf |title=Internet of Things: Making the Hype a Reality |date=May–June 2015 |access-date=10 April 2016 |journal=IT Pro |volume=17 |issue=3 |pages=2–4 |last=Pal |first=Arpan |doi=10.1109/MITP.2015.36 |archive-date=4 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150704105026/http://www2.computer.org/cms/Computer.org/ComputingNow/issues/2015/07/mit2015030002.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[6LoWPAN|IETF 6LoWPAN]] can be used to connect devices to IP networks. With billions of devices<ref name="Gartner">{{cite web |url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3165317 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151112182712/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/3165317 |url-status=dead |archive-date=12 November 2015 |title=Gartner Says 6.4 Billion Connected "Things" Will Be in Use in 2016, Up 30 Percent From 2015 |date=10 November 2015 |website=[[Gartner]] |access-date=21 April 2016}}</ref> being added to the Internet space, [[IPv6]] will play a major role in handling the network layer scalability. [[Constrained Application Protocol|IETF's Constrained Application Protocol]], [[ZeroMQ]], and [[MQTT]] can provide lightweight data transport. In practice many groups of IoT devices are hidden behind gateway nodes and may not have unique addresses. Also the vision of everything-interconnected is not needed for most applications as it is mainly the data which need interconnecting at a higher layer.{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}

Fog computing is a viable alternative to prevent such a large burst of data flow through the Internet.<ref name="MIST">{{cite journal|title=MIST: Fog-based Data Analytics Scheme with Cost-Efficient Resource Provisioning for IoT Crowdsensing Applications | doi=10.1016/j.jnca.2017.01.012 | volume=82 | journal=Journal of Network and Computer Applications | pages=152–165 | last1 = Reza Arkian | first1 = Hamid | year=2017 }}</ref> The [[edge device]]s' computation power to analyze and process data is extremely limited. Limited processing power is a key attribute of IoT devices as their purpose is to supply data about physical objects while remaining autonomous. Heavy processing requirements use more battery power harming IoT's ability to operate. Scalability is easy because IoT devices simply supply data through the internet to a server with sufficient processing power.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=https://www.techthrive.co.za/techtalk/iot-the-outer-edge-computing/ |title=IoT The outer Edge Computing |date=June 2019 |access-date=3 June 2019 |archive-date=26 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201126201421/https://www.techthrive.co.za/techtalk/iot-the-outer-edge-computing/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===== Decentralized IoT =====
Decentralized Internet of things, or decentralized IoT, is a modified IoT which utilizes fog computing to handle and balance requests of connected IoT devices in order to reduce loading on the cloud servers and improve responsiveness for latency-sensitive IoT applications like vital signs monitoring of patients, vehicle-to-vehicle communication of autonomous driving, and critical failure detection of industrial devices.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cui|first1=Laizhong|last2=Yang|first2=Shu|last3=Chen|first3=Ziteng|last4=Pan|first4=Yi|last5=Ming|first5=Zhong|last6=Xu|first6=Mingwei|date=May 2020|title=A Decentralized and Trusted Edge Computing Platform for Internet of Things|url=|journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal|volume=7|issue=5|pages=3910–3922|doi=10.1109/JIOT.2019.2951619|issn=2327-4662|s2cid=209097962}}</ref> Performance is improved, especially for huge IoT systems with millions of nodes.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2020-12-01|title=A survey on machine learning in Internet of Things: Algorithms, strategies, and applications|url=|journal=Internet of Things|language=en|volume=12|pages=100314|doi=10.1016/j.iot.2020.100314|issn=2542-6605|last1=Messaoud|first1=Seifeddine|last2=Bradai|first2=Abbas|last3=Bukhari|first3=Syed Hashim Raza|last4=Quang|first4=Pham Tran Anh|last5=Ahmed|first5=Olfa Ben|last6=Atri|first6=Mohamed|s2cid=228876304}}</ref>

Conventional IoT is connected via a mesh network and led by a major head node (centralized controller).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nguyen|first1=Tien-Dung|last2=Huh|first2=Eui-Nam|last3=Jo|first3=Minho|date=June 2019|title=Decentralized and Revised Content-Centric Networking-Based Service Deployment and Discovery Platform in Mobile Edge Computing for IoT Devices|url=|journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal|volume=6|issue=3|pages=4162–4175|doi=10.1109/JIOT.2018.2875489|s2cid=69250756|issn=2327-4662}}</ref> The head node decides how a data is created, stored, and transmitted.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Xiong|first1=Zehui|last2=Zhang|first2=Yang|last3=Luong|first3=Nguyen Cong|last4=Niyato|first4=Dusit|last5=Wang|first5=Ping|last6=Guizani|first6=Nadra|date=January 2020|title=The Best of Both Worlds: A General Architecture for Data Management in Blockchain-enabled Internet-of-Things|url=|journal=IEEE Network|volume=34|issue=1|pages=166–173|doi=10.1109/MNET.001.1900095|s2cid=211050783|issn=1558-156X}}</ref> In contrast, decentralized IoT attempts to divide IoT systems into smaller divisions.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Alhaizaey|first1=Yousef|last2=Singer|first2=Jeremy|last3=Michala|first3=Anna Lito|title=2021 IEEE 22nd International Symposium on a World of Wireless, Mobile and Multimedia Networks (WoWMoM) |chapter=Optimizing Task Allocation for Edge Micro-Clusters in Smart Cities |date=June 2021|chapter-url=https://eprints.gla.ac.uk/242846/2/242846.pdf|pages=341–347|doi=10.1109/WoWMoM51794.2021.00062|isbn=978-1-6654-2263-5|s2cid=235780952}}</ref> The head node authorizes partial decision-making power to lower level sub-nodes under mutual agreed policy.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Guo|first1=Hongzhi|last2=Liu|first2=Jiajia|last3=Qin|first3=Huiling|date=January 2018|title=Collaborative Mobile Edge Computation Offloading for IoT over Fiber-Wireless Networks|url=|journal=IEEE Network|volume=32|issue=1|pages=66–71|doi=10.1109/MNET.2018.1700139|s2cid=12479631|issn=1558-156X}}</ref> 

Some approached to decentralized IoT attempts to address the limited bandwidth and hashing capacity of battery powered or wireless IoT devices via [[blockchain]].<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Cherupally|first1=Sumanth Reddy|last2=Boga|first2=Srinivas|last3=Podili|first3=Prashanth|last4=Kataoka|first4=Kotaro|title=2021 International Conference on Information Networking (ICOIN) |chapter=Lightweight and Scalable DAG based distributed ledger for verifying IoT data integrity |date=January 2021|chapter-url=|pages=267–272|doi=10.1109/ICOIN50884.2021.9334000|isbn=978-1-7281-9101-0|s2cid=231825899}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Fan|first1=Xinxin|last2=Chai|first2=Qi|last3=Xu|first3=Lei|last4=Guo|first4=Dong|title=Proceedings of the 2nd ACM International Symposium on Blockchain and Secure Critical Infrastructure |chapter=DIAM-IoT: A Decentralized Identity and Access Management Framework for Internet of Things |date=2020-10-06|chapter-url=|series=BSCI '20|location=Taipei, Taiwan|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=186–191|doi=10.1145/3384943.3409436|isbn=978-1-4503-7610-5|s2cid=222142832}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last1=Durand|first1=Arnaud|last2=Gremaud|first2=Pascal|last3=Pasquier|first3=Jacques|title=Proceedings of the Seventh International Conference on the Internet of Things |chapter=Decentralized web of trust and authentication for the internet of things |date=2017-10-22|chapter-url=|series=IoT '17|location=Linz, Austria|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|pages=1–2|doi=10.1145/3131542.3140263|isbn=978-1-4503-5318-2|s2cid=3645848}}</ref>

===Complexity===
In semi-open or closed loops (i.e., value chains, whenever a global finality can be settled) the IoT will often be considered and studied as a [[complex system]]<ref name="Gautier 2011" >{{cite book
 |last1=Gautier |first1=Philippe
 |title=L'Internet des Objets... Internet, mais en mieux
 |last2=Gonzalez |first2=Laurent
 |publisher=[[AFNOR]] editions
 |others=Foreword by Gérald Santucci (European commission), postword by Daniel Kaplan (FING) and Michel Volle
 |location=Paris
 |date=2011
 |isbn=978-2-12-465316-4
 |url=http://excerpts.numilog.com/books/9782124653164.pdf
}}</ref> due to the huge number of different links, interactions between autonomous actors, and its capacity to integrate new actors. At the overall stage (full open loop) it will likely be seen as a [[chaos theory|chaotic]] environment (since [[system]]s always have finality). 
As a practical approach, not all elements on the Internet of things run in a global, public space. Subsystems are often implemented to mitigate the risks of privacy, control and reliability. For example, domestic robotics (domotics) running inside a smart home might only share data within and be available via a [[local network]].<ref name="MargineanSDOMO16">{{cite book |chapter-url={{Google books|OGltDQAAQBAJ|page=PA151|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=sDOMO communication protocol for home robotic systems in the context of the internet of things |title=Computer Science, Technology And Application |author=Marginean, M.-T. |author2=Lu, C. |publisher=World Scientific |pages=151–60 |year=2016 |isbn=9789813200432}}</ref> Managing and controlling a high dynamic ad hoc IoT things/devices network is a tough task with the traditional networks architecture, Software Defined Networking (SDN) provides the agile dynamic solution that can cope with the special requirements of the diversity of innovative IoT applications.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Montazerolghaem|first=Ahmadreza|date=2021|title=Software-defined Internet of Multimedia Things: Energy-efficient and Load-balanced Resource Management|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9475487|journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal|volume=9|issue=3|pages=2432–2442|doi=10.1109/JIOT.2021.3095237|s2cid=237801052|issn=2327-4662}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last=Rowayda|first=A. Sadek|title= – An Agile Internet of Things (IoT) based Software Defined Network (SDN) Architecture |journal=  Egyptian Computer Science Journal |date=May 2018|url=http://ecsjournal.org/Archive/Volume42/Issue2/2.pdf }}</ref>

===Size considerations===
The exact scale of the Internet of things is unknown, with quotes of billions or trillions often quoted at the beginning of IoT articles. In 2015 there were 83 million smart devices in people's homes. This number is expected to grow to 193 million devices by 2020.<ref name="businessinsider.com"/><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Montazerolghaem|first1=Ahmadreza|last2=Yaghmaee|first2=Mohammad Hossein|date=April 2020|title=Load-Balanced and QoS-Aware Software-Defined Internet of Things|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8962313|journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal|volume=7|issue=4|pages=3323–3337|doi=10.1109/JIOT.2020.2967081|s2cid=214551067|issn=2327-4662}}</ref>

The figure of online capable devices grew 31% from 2016 to 2017 to reach 8.4 billion.<ref name="faz.net">{{Cite news | url=https://www.faz.net/aktuell/wirtschaft/diginomics/grosse-internationale-allianz-gegen-cyber-attacken-15451953-p2.html?printPagedArticle=true#pageIndex_1 | title=Online-Kriminalität: Konzerne verbünden sich gegen Hacker| newspaper=Faz.net| last1=Köhn| first1=Rüdiger}}</ref>

===Space considerations===
In the Internet of things, the precise geographic location of a thing—and also the precise geographic dimensions of a thing—can be critical.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OGC SensorThings API standard specification |work=OGC |url=https://portal.opengeospatial.org/files/?artifact_id=64146 |access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref> Therefore, facts about a thing, such as its location in time and space, have been less critical to track because the person processing the information can decide whether or not that information was important to the action being taken, and if so, add the missing information (or decide to not take the action). (Note that some things on the Internet of things will be sensors, and sensor location is usually important.<ref>{{Cite web |title=OGC Sensor Web Enablement: Overview And High Level Architecture |work=OGC |url=http://portal.opengeospatial.org/files/?artifact_id=25562 |access-date=15 February 2016}}</ref>) The [[GeoWeb]] and [[Digital Earth]] are applications that become possible when things can become organized and connected by location. However, the challenges that remain include the constraints of variable spatial scales, the need to handle massive amounts of data, and an indexing for fast search and neighbour operations. On the Internet of things, if things are able to take actions on their own initiative, this human-centric mediation role is eliminated. Thus, the time-space context that we as humans take for granted must be given a central role in this information [[ecosystem]]. Just as standards play a key role on the Internet and the Web, geo-spatial standards will play a key role on the Internet of things.<ref name="MinteerAnalytics17">{{cite book |chapter-url={{Google books|FedDDwAAQBAJ|page=PA230|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=Chapter 9: Applying Geospatial Analytics to IoT Data |title=Analytics for the Internet of Things (IoT) |author=Minteer, A. |publisher=Packt Publishing |pages=230–57 |year=2017 |isbn=9781787127579}}</ref><ref name="vanderZeeSpatial14">{{cite book |chapter-url={{Google books|tEC5BQAAQBAJ|page=PA160|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=Spatial Dimensions of Big Data: Application of Geographical Concepts and Spatial Technology to the Internet of Things |title=Big Data and Internet of Things: A Roadmap for Smart Environments |author=van der Zee, E. |author2=Scholten, H. |editor=Bessis, N. |editor2=Dobre, C. |publisher=Springer |pages=137–68 |year=2014 |isbn=9783319050294}}</ref>

===A solution to "basket of remotes"===
Many IoT devices have the potential to take a piece of this market. [[Jean-Louis Gassée]] (Apple initial alumni team, and BeOS co-founder) has addressed this topic in an article on ''Monday Note'',<ref name="GasséeInternet14">{{cite web |url=http://www.mondaynote.com/2014/01/12/internet-of-things-the-basket-of-remotes-problem/ |title=Internet of Things: The "Basket of Remotes" Problem |author=Gassée, J.-L. |work=Monday Note |date=12 January 2014 |access-date=26 June 2015 |archive-date=27 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627021845/http://www.mondaynote.com/2014/01/12/internet-of-things-the-basket-of-remotes-problem/ |url-status=dead }}</ref> where he predicts that the most likely problem will be what he calls the "basket of remotes" problem, where we'll have hundreds of applications to interface with hundreds of devices that don't share protocols for speaking with one another.<ref name="GasséeInternet14" /> For improved user interaction, some technology leaders are joining forces to create standards for communication between devices to solve this problem. Others are turning to the concept of predictive interaction of devices, "where collected data is used to predict and trigger actions on the specific devices" while making them work together.<ref name="deSousaInternet2015">{{cite book |chapter-url={{Google books|CFtICgAAQBAJ|page=PA163|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=Chapter 10: Integrating with Muzzley |title=Internet of Things with Intel Galileo |author=de Sousa, M. |publisher=Packt Publishing |page=163 |year=2015 |isbn=9781782174912}}</ref>

=== Social Internet of things ===
Social Internet of things (SIoT) is a new kind of IoT that focuses the importance of social interaction and relationship between IoT devices.<ref>{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9295079|chapter=Social IoT|publisher=[[IEEE]]|year=2021|isbn=9781119701255|pages=195–211|language=en-US|doi=10.1002/9781119701460.ch9|access-date=2021-07-09|title=Enabling the Internet of Things|s2cid=240696468}}</ref> SIoT is a pattern of how cross-domain IoT devices enabling application to application communication and collaboration without human intervention in order to serve their owners with autonomous services,<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Saleem|first1=Yasir|last2=Crespi|first2=Noel|last3=Pace|first3=Pasquale|title=2018 IEEE International Conference on Cloud Engineering (IC2E) |chapter=SCDIoT: Social Cross-Domain IoT Enabling Application-to-Application Communications |date=April 2018|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8360352|location=Orlando, FL|publisher=IEEE|pages=346–350|doi=10.1109/IC2E.2018.00068|isbn=978-1-5386-5008-0|s2cid=21720322}}</ref> and this only can be realized when gained low-level architecture support from both IoT software and hardware engineering.<ref name=":02">{{Cite journal|last1=Afzal|first1=Bilal|last2=Umair|first2=Muhammad|last3=Asadullah Shah|first3=Ghalib|last4=Ahmed|first4=Ejaz|date=March 2019|title=Enabling IoT platforms for social IoT applications: Vision, feature mapping, and challenges|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0167739X17312724|journal=Future Generation Computer Systems|language=en|volume=92|pages=718–731|doi=10.1016/j.future.2017.12.002|s2cid=57379503}}</ref>

==== Social Network for IoT Devices (Not Human) ====
IoT defines a device with an identity like a citizen in a community and connect them to the internet to provide services to its users.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Bhatia|first1=Munish|last2=Sood|first2=Sandeep K.|date=June 2020|title=Quantum Computing-Inspired Network Optimization for IoT Applications|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9031708|journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal|volume=7|issue=6|pages=5590–5598|doi=10.1109/JIOT.2020.2979887|s2cid=215845606|issn=2327-4662}}</ref> SIoT defines a social network for IoT devices only to interact with each other for different goals that to serve human.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Cheng|first1=Wai Khuen|last2=Ileladewa|first2=Adeoye Abiodun|last3=Tan|first3=Teik Boon|title=2019 International Conference on Green and Human Information Technology (ICGHIT) |chapter=A Personalized Recommendation Framework for Social Internet of Things (SIoT) |date=January 2019|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8866950|pages=24–29|doi=10.1109/ICGHIT.2019.00013|isbn=978-1-7281-0627-4|s2cid=204702019}}</ref>

==== How is SIoT different from IoT? ====
SIoT is different from the original IoT in terms of the collaboration characteristics. IoT is passive, it was set to serve for dedicated purposes with existing IoT devices in predetermined system. SIoT is active, it was programmed and managed by AI to serve for unplanned purposes with mix and match of potential IoT devices from different systems that benefit its users.<ref>{{Cite journal|date=2012-11-14|title=The Social Internet of Things (SIoT) – When social networks meet the Internet of Things: Concept, architecture and network characterization|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1389128612002654|journal=Computer Networks|language=en|volume=56|issue=16|pages=3594–3608|doi=10.1016/j.comnet.2012.07.010|issn=1389-1286|last1=Atzori|first1=Luigi|last2=Iera|first2=Antonio|last3=Morabito|first3=Giacomo|last4=Nitti|first4=Michele}}</ref>

==== How does SIoT Work? ====
IoT devices built-in with sociability will broadcast their abilities or functionalities, and at the same time discovers, shares information, monitors, navigates and groups with other IoT devices in the same or nearby network realizing SIoT <ref>{{Cite book|last1=Voutyras|first1=Orfefs|last2=Bourelos|first2=Panagiotis |last3=Gogouvitis|first3=Spyridon|last4=Kyriazis|first4=Dimosthenis|last5=Varvarigou|first5=Theodora|chapter=Social monitoring and social analysis in internet of things virtual networks |date=2015-02-17|pages=244–251 |title=2015 18th International Conference on Intelligence in Next Generation Networks|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7073838|doi=10.1109/ICIN.2015.7073838|isbn=978-1-4799-1866-9 }}</ref> and facilitating useful service compositions in order to help its users proactively in every day's life especially during emergency.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Khelloufi|first1=Amar|last2=Ning|first2=Huansheng|last3=Dhelim|first3=Sahraoui|last4=Qiu|first4=Tie|last5=Ma|first5=Jianhua|last6=Huang|first6=Runhe|last7=Atzori|first7=Luigi|date=2021-02-01|title=A Social-Relationships-Based Service Recommendation System for SIoT Devices|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/9167284|journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal|volume=8|issue=3|pages=1859–1870|doi=10.1109/JIOT.2020.3016659|issn=2327-4662|s2cid=226476576}}</ref>

==== Social IoT Examples ====

# IoT-based smart home technology monitors health data of patients or aging adults by analyzing their physiological parameters and prompt the nearby health facilities when emergency medical services needed.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Miori|first1=Vittorio|last2=Russo|first2=Dario|title=2017 Global Internet of Things Summit (GIoTS) |chapter=Improving life quality for the elderly through the Social Internet of Things (SIoT) |date=June 2017|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8016215|location=Geneva, Switzerland|publisher=IEEE|pages=1–6|doi=10.1109/GIOTS.2017.8016215|isbn=978-1-5090-5873-0|s2cid=7475703}}</ref> In case emergency, automatically, ambulance of a nearest available hospital will be called with pickup location provided, ward assigned, patient's health data will be transmitted to the emergency department, and display on the doctor's computer immediately for further action.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Udawant|first1=Omkar|last2=Thombare|first2=Nikhil|last3=Chauhan|first3=Devanand|last4=Hadke|first4=Akash|last5=Waghole|first5=Dattatray|title=2017 International Conference on Big Data, IoT and Data Science (BID) |chapter=Smart ambulance system using IoT |date=December 2017|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8336593|location=Pune, India|publisher=IEEE|pages=171–176|doi=10.1109/BID.2017.8336593|isbn=978-1-5090-6593-6|s2cid=4865714}}</ref>
# IoT sensors on the vehicles, road and traffic lights monitor the conditions of the vehicles and drivers and alert when attention needed and also coordinate themselves automatically to ensure autonomous driving is working normally. Unfortunately if an accident happens, IoT camera will inform the nearest hospital and police station for help.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Saleem|first1=Yasir|last2=Crespi|first2=Noel|last3=Rehmani|first3=Mubashir Husain|last4=Copeland|first4=Rebecca|last5=Hussein|first5=Dina|last6=Bertin|first6=Emmanuel|title=2016 IEEE 3rd World Forum on Internet of Things (WF-IoT) |chapter=Exploitation of social IoT for recommendation services |date=December 2016|chapter-url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/7845500|location=Reston, VA, USA|publisher=IEEE|pages=359–364|doi=10.1109/WF-IoT.2016.7845500|isbn=978-1-5090-4130-5|s2cid=206866361}}</ref>

==== Social IoT Challenges ====
# Internet of things is multifaceted and complicated.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Andrade|first1=Rossana M.C.|last2=Aragão|first2=Belmondo R.|last3=Oliveira|first3=Pedro Almir M.|last4=Maia|first4=Marcio E.F.|last5=Viana|first5=Windson|last6=Nogueira|first6=Tales P.|date=April 2021|title=Multifaceted infrastructure for self-adaptive IoT systems|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0950584920302469|journal=Information and Software Technology|language=en|volume=132|pages=106505|doi=10.1016/j.infsof.2020.106505|s2cid=231731945}}</ref> One of the main factors that hindering people from adopting and use Internet of things (IoT) based products and services is its complexity.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Farahbakhsh|first1=Bahareh|last2=Fanian|first2=Ali|last3=Manshaei|first3=Mohammad Hossein|date=March 2021|title=TGSM: Towards trustworthy group-based service management for social IoT|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.iot.2020.100312|journal=Internet of Things|volume=13|pages=100312|doi=10.1016/j.iot.2020.100312|s2cid=228806944|issn=2542-6605}}</ref> Installation and setup is a challenge to people, therefore, there is a need for IoT devices to mix match and configure themselves automatically to provide different services at different situation.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Iqbal|first1=Muhammad Azhar|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/book/10.1002/9781119701460|title=Enabling the Internet of Things: Fundamentals, Design, and Applications|last2=Hussain|first2=Sajjad|last3=Xing|first3=Huanlai|last4=Imran|first4=Muhammad|date=February 2021|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-119-70125-5|edition=1|language=en|doi=10.1002/9781119701460.ch9|s2cid=240696468}}</ref>
# System security always a concern for any technology, and it is more crucial for SIoT as not only security of oneself need to be considered but also the mutual trust mechanism between collaborative IoT devices from time to time, from place to place.<ref name=":02" />
# Another critical challenge for SIoT is the accuracy and reliability of the sensors. At most of the circumstances, IoT sensors would need to respond in nanoseconds to avoid accidents, injury, and loss of life.<ref name=":02" />

==Enabling technologies==
There are many technologies that enable the IoT. Crucial to the field is the network used to communicate between devices of an IoT installation, a role that several wireless or wired technologies may fulfill:<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1109/MC.2015.12|title = Enabling the Internet of Things|journal = Computer|volume = 48|pages = 28–35|year = 2015|last1 = Want|first1 = Roy|last2 = Schilit|first2 = Bill N.|last3 = Jenson|first3 = Scott|s2cid = 17384656}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/05/14/the_internet_of_things_a_jumbled_mess_or_a_jumbled_mess/|title=The Internet of Things: a jumbled mess or a jumbled mess?|website=[[The Register]]|access-date=5 June 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2488373/emerging-technology/can-we-talk--internet-of-things-vendors-face-a-communications--mess-.html|title=Can we talk? Internet of Things vendors face a communications 'mess'|website=[[Computerworld]]|access-date=5 June 2016|date=18 April 2014}}{{Dead link|date=September 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Addressability===
The original idea of the [[Auto-ID Center]] is based on RFID-tags and distinct identification through the [[Electronic Product Code]]. This has evolved into objects having an IP address or [[URI]].<ref name="HassanInternet18">{{cite book |url={{Google books|YmpaDwAAQBAJ|page=PA27|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Internet of Things A to Z: Technologies and Applications |author=Hassan, Q.F. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=27–8 |year=2018 |isbn=9781119456759}}</ref> An alternative view, from the world of the [[Semantic Web]]<ref name="Brickley et al, 2001">Dan Brickley et al., c. 2001</ref> focuses instead on making all things (not just those electronic, smart, or RFID-enabled) addressable by the existing naming protocols, such as [[URI]]. The objects themselves do not converse, but they may now be referred to by other agents, such as powerful centralised servers acting for their human owners.<ref name="ShengManaging17">{{cite book |url={{Google books|q0PQDAAAQBAJ|page=PA256|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Managing the Web of Things: Linking the Real World to the Web |author=Sheng, M. |author2=Qun, Y. |author3=Yao, L. |author4=Benatallah, B. |publisher=Morgan Kaufmann |pages=256–8 |year=2017 |isbn=9780128097656}}</ref> Integration with the Internet implies that devices will use an [[IP address]] as a distinct identifier. Due to the [[IPv4 address exhaustion|limited address space]] of [[IPv4]] (which allows for 4.3 billion different addresses), objects in the IoT will have to use [[IPv6|the next generation]] of the Internet protocol ([[IPv6]]) to scale to the extremely large address space required.<ref name="Waldner, 2008">{{cite book|title=Nanocomputers and Swarm Intelligence|last=Waldner|first=Jean-Baptiste|date=2008|publisher=ISTE|isbn=978-1-84704-002-2|location=London|pages=227–231|author-link=Jean-Baptiste Waldner}}</ref><ref name="6LoWPAN">{{cite IETF|title=IPv6 over Low-Power Wireless Personal Area Networks (6LoWPANs): Overview, Assumptions, Problem Statement, and Goals|rfc=4919|last1=Kushalnagar|first1=N.|last2=Montenegro|first2=G.|last3=Schumacher|first3=C.|date=August 2007|publisher=[[IETF]]}}</ref><ref name="computerworld.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.computerworld.com/article/2488886/networking/stop-using-internet-protocol-version-4-.html|title=Stop using Internet Protocol Version 4!|last=Sun|first=Charles C.|date=1 May 2014|work=Computerworld}}<!-- Origianl ref: http://www.computerworld.com/s/article/9248043/Stop_using_Internet_Protocol_Version_4 --></ref>
Internet-of-things devices additionally will benefit from the stateless address auto-configuration present in IPv6,<ref name="IPv6-autoconfiguration">{{cite IETF|title=IPv6 Stateless Address Autoconfiguration|rfc=4862|last1=Thomson|first1=S.|last2=Narten|first2=T.|last3=Jinmei|first3=T.|date=September 2007|publisher=[[IETF]]}}</ref> as it reduces the configuration overhead on the hosts,<ref name="6LoWPAN" /> and the [[6LoWPAN|IETF 6LoWPAN]] header compression. To a large extent, the future of the Internet of things will not be possible without the support of IPv6; and consequently, the global adoption of IPv6 in the coming years will be critical for the successful development of the IoT in the future.<ref name="computerworld.com" />

===Application Layer===
* [[Xped#ADRC|ADRC]] defines an application layer protocol and supporting framework for implementing IoT applications.

===Short-range wireless===
* [[Bluetooth mesh networking]] – Specification providing a mesh networking variant to [[Bluetooth Low Energy]] (BLE) with an increased number of nodes and standardized application layer (Models).
* [[Li-Fi]] ([[light]] fidelity) – Wireless communication technology similar to the Wi-Fi standard, but using [[visible light communication|visible-light communication]] for increased bandwidth.
* [[Near-field communication]] (NFC) – Communication protocols enabling two electronic devices to communicate within a 4&nbsp;cm range.
* [[Radio-frequency identification]] (RFID) – Technology using electromagnetic fields to read data stored in tags embedded in other items.
* [[Wi-Fi]] – Technology for [[local area network]]ing–based on the [[IEEE 802.11]] standard, where devices may communicate through a shared access point or directly between individual devices.
* [[Zigbee]] – Communication protocols for [[personal area network]]ing– based on the IEEE 802.15.4 standard, providing low power consumption, low data rate, low cost, and high throughput.
* [[Z-Wave]] – [[Wireless]] communications protocol used primarily for [[home automation]] and security applications

===Medium-range wireless===
* [[LTE-Advanced]] – High-speed communication specification for mobile networks. Provides enhancements to the [[LTE (telecommunication)|LTE]] standard with extended coverage, higher throughput, and lower latency.
* [[5G]] – 5G wireless networks can be used to achieve the high communication requirements of the IoT and connect a large number of IoT devices, even when they are on the move.<ref>{{Cite book|last1=Alsulami|first1=M. M.|last2=Akkari|first2=N.|title=2018 1st International Conference on Computer Applications & Information Security (ICCAIS) |chapter=The role of 5G wireless networks in the internet-of- things (IoT) |date=April 2018|pages=1–8|doi=10.1109/CAIS.2018.8471687|isbn=978-1-5386-4427-0|s2cid=52897932}}</ref> There are three features of 5G that are each considered to be useful for supporting particular elements of IoT: enhanced mobile broadband (eMBB), massive machine type communications (mMTC) and ultra-reliable low latency communications (URLLC).<ref>{{Cite web |title=5G Internet of Things |url=https://transformainsights.com/5g-iot |access-date=2022-07-26 |website=transformainsights.com |language=en}}</ref>
* [[LoRa]]: Range up to {{convert|3|miles|km}} in urban areas, and up to {{convert|10|miles|km}} or more in rural areas (line of sight).
* [[DASH7]]: Range of up to 2&nbsp;km.

===Long-range wireless===
* [[LPWAN|Low-power wide-area networking]] (LPWAN) – Wireless networks designed to allow long-range communication at a low data rate, reducing power and cost for transmission. Available LPWAN technologies and protocols: [[Lorawan|LoRaWan]], [[Sigfox]], [[NB-IoT]], Weightless, RPMA, [[MIoTy]], [[IEEE 802.11ah]]
* [[Very-small-aperture terminal]] (VSAT) – [[Satellite]] communication technology using small [[parabolic antenna|dish antennas]] for [[narrowband]] and [[broadband]] data.

===Wired===
* [[Ethernet]] – General purpose networking standard using [[twisted pair]] and [[fiber optic]] links in conjunction with [[Ethernet hub|hubs]] or [[Ethernet switch|switches]].
* [[Power-line communication]] (PLC) – Communication technology using electrical wiring to carry power and data. Specifications such as [[HomePlug]] or [[G.hn]] utilize PLC for networking IoT devices.

===Comparison of technologies by layer===
{{See also|OSI model|Internet protocol suite}}

Different technologies have different roles in a [[protocol stack]]. Below is a simplified<ref group=notes>The actual standards may use different terminology and/or define different layer borders than those presented here.</ref> presentation of the roles of several popular communication technologies in IoT applications:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! !! [[Physical layer|Physical]] !! [[Data link layer|Link]] / [[Medium access control|MAC]] !! [[Network layer|Network]] !! [[Transport layer|Transport]] !! [[Application layer|Application]]
|-
! [[Bluetooth LE]]<ref>{{Citation| publisher = Bluetooth SIG, Inc.| last = Woolley| first = Martin| title = The Bluetooth Low Energy Primer| date = 2022-06-06| url = https://www.bluetooth.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Bluetooth_LE_Primer_Paper.pdf}}</ref>
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}}
|-
! [[Z-Wave]]<ref>{{Citation| publisher = Z-Wave Alliance| title = Application Work Group Z-Wave Specifications Version 1.0| date = 2022-05-09| url = https://sdomembers.z-wavealliance.org/document/dl/917}}</ref>
| {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}}
|-
! ITU-T G.9959<ref>{{Citation| publisher = ITU| title = G.9959: Short range narrow-band digital radiocommunication transceivers - PHY, MAC, SAR and LLC layer specifications| access-date = 2022-12-20| date = 2015-01-13| url = https://www.itu.int/rec/dologin_pub.asp?lang=e&id=T-REC-G.9959-201501-I!!PDF-E&type=items}}</ref>
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}}
|-
! [[Zigbee]]<ref>{{Citation| publisher = zigbee alliance| title = zigbee Specification Revision 22 1.0| date = 2017-04-19}}</ref>
| {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{ya}}
|-
! [[Matter (standard)|Matter]]<ref>{{Citation| publisher = Connectivity Standards Alliance| title = Matter Specification Version 1.0| date = 2022-09-28}}</ref>
| {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}}
|-
! [[Transmission Control Protocol|TCP]]<ref>{{Citation| publisher = Internet Engineering Task Force| last = Eddy| first = Wesley| title = Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)| access-date = 2022-12-20| date = 2022-08-18| url = https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/rfc9293}}</ref> and [[User Datagram Protocol|UDP]]<ref>{{Citation| publisher = Internet Engineering Task Force| title = User Datagram Protocol| access-date = 2022-12-20| date = 2013-03-02| url = https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/rfc768}}</ref>
| {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}}
|-
! [[Thread (network protocol)|Thread]]<ref>{{Cite web| title = Thread Primer| work = OpenThread| access-date = 2022-12-20| date = 2022-10-10| url = https://openthread.io/guides/thread-primer}}</ref>
| {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}}
|-
! [[IEEE 802.15.4]]<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1109/IEEESTD.2020.9144691| pages = 1–800| title = IEEE Standard for Low-Rate Wireless Networks| journal = IEEE STD 802.15.4-2020 (Revision of IEEE STD 802.15.4-2015)| date = 2020-07-23| isbn = 978-1-5044-6689-9}}</ref>
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}}
|-
! [[IPv6]]<ref>{{Citation| publisher = Internet Engineering Task Force| last1 = Deering| first1 = Steve E.| last2 = Hinden| first2 = Bob| title = Internet Protocol, Version 6 (IPv6) Specification| access-date = 2022-12-20| date = July 2017| url = https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/rfc8200}}</ref>
| {{na}} || {{na}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}}
|-
! [[Ethernet]]<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1109/IEEESTD.2018.8457469| pages = 1–5600| title = IEEE Standard for Ethernet| journal = IEEE STD 802.3-2018 (Revision of IEEE STD 802.3-2015)| date = 2018-08-31| isbn = 978-1-5044-5090-4}}</ref>
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}}
|-
! [[Wi-Fi]]<ref>{{Cite journal| doi = 10.1109/IEEESTD.2021.9363693| pages = 1–4379| journal = IEEE STD 802.11-2020 (Revision of IEEE STD 802.11-2016)| date = 2021-02-26| isbn = 978-1-5044-7283-8| title = IEEE Standard for Information Technology--Telecommunications and Information Exchange between Systems - Local and Metropolitan Area Networks--Specific Requirements - Part 11: Wireless LAN Medium Access Control (MAC) and Physical Layer (PHY) Specifications}}</ref>
| {{ya}} || {{ya}} || {{na}} || {{na}} || {{na}}
|}

===Standards and standards organizations===
This is a list of [[technical standard]]s for the IoT, most of which are [[open standard]]s, and the [[standards organization]]s that aspire to successfully setting them.<ref name="JingResearch12">{{cite book |chapter-url={{Google books|VAG7BQAAQBAJ|page=PA627|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=Research on the Relevant Standards of Internet of Things |title=Internet of Things: International Workshop, IOT 2012 |author=Jing, J. |author2=Li, H. |editor=Wang, Y. |editor2=Zhang, X. |publisher=Springer |pages=627–32 |year=2012 |isbn=9783642324277}}</ref><ref name="MahmoodConnected18">{{cite book |url={{Google books|dKVFDwAAQBAJ|page=PA89|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Connected Environments for the Internet of Things: Challenges and Solutions |author=Mahmood, Z. |publisher=Springer |pages=89–90 |year=2018 |isbn=9783319701028}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable sortable" border="1"
|-
! scope="col" style="width: 15%;" |Short name <!-- Wikilinks in the table consistently link on short name -->
! scope="col" style="width: 30%;" |Long name
! scope="col" style="width: 30%;" |Standards under development
! scope="col" style="width: 25%;" |Other notes
|-
| [[Auto-ID Labs]] || Auto Identification Center || Networked [[RFID]] (radiofrequency identification) and emerging [[sensor|sensing]] technologies ||
|-
| [[Connected Home over IP]] || Project Connected Home over IP || Connected Home over IP (or Project Connected Home over IP) is an open-sourced, royalty-free home automation connectivity standard project which features compatibility among different smart home and Internet of things (IoT) products and software || The Connected Home over IP project group was launched and introduced by [[Amazon (company)|Amazon]], [[Apple Inc.|Apple]], [[Google]],<ref>{{Cite web|title=Project Connected Home over IP|url=https://developers.googleblog.com/2019/12/project-connected-home-over-ip.html|access-date=2020-09-16|website=Google Developers Blog|language=en}}</ref> [[Comcast]] and the [[Zigbee Alliance]] on December 18, 2019.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnet.com/news/apple-amazon-google-and-others-want-to-create-a-new-standard-for-smart-home-tech/|title=Apple, Amazon, Google, and others want to create a new standard for smart home tech|last=Mihalcik|first=Carrie|website=CNET|language=en|access-date=2019-12-24}}</ref> The project is backed by big companies and by being based on proven Internet design principles and protocols it aims to unify the currently fragmented systems.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Strategy|first=Moor Insights and|title=CHIP Shot: Will Project Connected Home Over IP Get Us Onto The IoT Green?|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/moorinsights/2020/05/06/chip-shot-will-project-connected-home-over-ip-get-us-onto-the-iot-green/|access-date=2020-09-03|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref>
|-
| [[EPCglobal]] || Electronic Product code Technology || Standards for adoption of [[Electronic Product Code|EPC]] (Electronic Product Code) technology ||
|-
| [[FDA]] || U.S. Food and Drug Administration || [[Unique Device Identification|UDI]] (Unique Device Identification) system for distinct identifiers for [[medical device]]s ||
|-
| [[GS1]] || Global Standards One || Standards for [[Unique identifier|UIDs]] ("unique" identifiers) and RFID of [[fast-moving consumer goods]] (consumer packaged goods), health care supplies, and other things
The GS1 digital link standard,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gs1.org/standards/gs1-digital-link|title=Digital Link - Standards {{!}} GS1|date=2018-11-12|website=www.gs1.org|language=en|access-date=2020-04-28}}</ref> first released in August 2018, allows the use QR Codes, GS1 Datamatrix, RFID and NFC to enable various types of business-to-business, as well as business-to-consumers interactions.
| Parent organization comprises member organizations such as [[GS1 US]]
|-
| [[IEEE]] || Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers || Underlying communication technology standards such as [[IEEE 802.15.4]], IEEE P1451-99<ref>{{cite web |title=P1451-99 - Standard for Harmonization of Internet of Things (IoT) Devices and Systems |url=https://standards.ieee.org/project/1451-99.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316075232/https://standards.ieee.org/project/1451-99.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 March 2020 |publisher=IEEE |access-date=26 July 2021}}</ref> (IoT Harmonization), and IEEE P1931.1 (ROOF Computing). ||
|-
| [[IETF]] || Internet Engineering Task Force || Standards that comprise [[TCP/IP]] (the Internet protocol suite) ||
|-
| MTConnect Institute || — || [[MTConnect]] is a manufacturing industry standard for data exchange with [[machine tool]]s and related industrial equipment. It is important to the IIoT subset of the IoT. ||
|-
| [[O-DF]]|| Open Data Format || O-DF is a standard published by the Internet of Things Work Group of The Open Group in 2014, which specifies a generic information model structure that is meant to be applicable for describing any "Thing", as well as for publishing, updating and querying information when used together with [[O-MI]] (Open Messaging Interface). ||
|-
| [[O-MI]]|| Open Messaging Interface || O-MI is a standard published by the Internet of Things Work Group of The Open Group in 2014, which specifies a limited set of key operations needed in IoT systems, notably different kinds of subscription mechanisms based on the [[Observer pattern]]. ||
|-
| [[Open Connectivity Foundation|OCF]] || Open Connectivity Foundation || Standards for simple devices using [[CoAP]] (Constrained Application Protocol) || OCF (Open Connectivity Foundation) supersedes [[Open Interconnect Consortium|OIC]] (Open Interconnect Consortium)
|-
| [[Open Mobile Alliance|OMA]]
| Open Mobile Alliance
| [[OMA DM]] and [[OMA LWM2M]] for IoT device management, as well as GotAPI, which provides a secure framework for IoT applications
||
|-
| [[XMPP Standards Foundation|XSF]] || XMPP Standards Foundation || Protocol extensions of [[XMPP]] (Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol), the open standard of [[instant messaging]] ||
|-
|[[W3C]]
|World Wide Web Consortium
|Standards for bringing interoperability between different IoT protocols and platforms such as [[Thing Description]], [https://www.w3.org/TR/wot-discovery/ Discovery], [https://www.w3.org/TR/wot-scripting-api/ Scripting API] and [https://www.w3.org/TR/wot-architecture11/ Architecture] that explains how they work together.
|Homepage of the Web of Things activity at the W3C at https://www.w3.org/WoT/
|-
|}

==Politics and civic engagement==
Some scholars and activists argue that the IoT can be used to create new models of [[civic engagement]] if device networks can be open to user control and inter-operable platforms. [[Philip N. Howard]], a professor and author, writes that political life in both democracies and authoritarian regimes will be shaped by the way the IoT will be used for civic engagement. For that to happen, he argues that any connected device should be able to divulge a list of the "ultimate beneficiaries" of its sensor data and that individual citizens should be able to add new organisations to the beneficiary list. In addition, he argues that civil society groups need to start developing their IoT strategy for making use of data and engaging with the public.<ref>{{cite web|last=Howard|first=Philip N.|author-link=Philip N. Howard|url=http://www.politico.com/agenda/story/2015/06/philip-howard-on-iot-transformation-000099|title=The Internet of Things is Posed to Change Democracy Itself|work=[[Politico]]|date=1 June 2015|access-date=8 August 2017}}</ref>

==Government regulation==
One of the key drivers of the IoT is data. The success of the idea of connecting devices to make them more efficient is dependent upon access to and storage & processing of data. For this purpose, companies working on the IoT collect data from multiple sources and store it in their cloud network for further processing. This leaves the door wide open for privacy and security dangers and single point vulnerability of multiple systems.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.canadiancybersecuritylaw.com/2015/11/the-internet-of-things-guidance-regulation-and-the-canadian-approach/ |title=The Internet of Things: Guidance, Regulation and the Canadian Approach |first1=Kirsten |last1=Thompson |first2=Brandon |last2=Mattalo |date=24 November 2015 |work=CyberLex |access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref> The other issues pertain to consumer choice and ownership of data<ref>{{cite web |url=http://fortune.com/2016/04/06/who-owns-the-data/ |title=The Question of Who Owns the Data Is About to Get a Lot Trickier |date=6 April 2016 |work=[[Fortune (magazine)|Fortune]] |access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref> and how it is used. Though still in their infancy, regulations and governance regarding these issues of privacy, security, and data ownership continue to develop.<ref name="WeberInternet10">{{cite book |url={{Google books|9adAAAAAQBAJ|page=PA59|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Internet of Things: Legal Perspectives |author=Weber, R.H. |author2=Weber, R. |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |pages=59–64 |year=2010 |isbn=9783642117107}}</ref><ref name="HassanInternet18-2">{{cite book |url={{Google books|YmpaDwAAQBAJ|page=PA41|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Internet of Things A to Z: Technologies and Applications |author=Hassan, Q.F. |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |pages=41–4 |year=2018 |isbn=9781119456759}}</ref><ref name="HassanInternet17">{{cite book |url={{Google books|iGpQDwAAQBAJ|page=PA41|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Internet of Things: Challenges, Advances, and Applications |author=Hassan, Q.F. |author2=Khan, A. ur R. |author3=Madani, S.A. |publisher=CRC Press |pages=41–2 |year=2017 |isbn=9781498778534}}</ref> IoT regulation depends on the country. Some examples of legislation that is relevant to privacy and data collection are: the US Privacy Act of 1974, OECD Guidelines on the Protection of Privacy and Transborder Flows of Personal Data of 1980, and the EU Directive 95/46/EC of 1995.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Lopez|first1=Javier|last2=Rios|first2=Ruben|last3=Bao|first3=Feng|last4=Wang|first4=Guilin|title=Evolving privacy: From sensors to the Internet of Things|journal=Future Generation Computer Systems|volume=75|pages=46–57|doi=10.1016/j.future.2017.04.045|year=2017}}</ref>

Current regulatory environment:

A report published by the [[Federal Trade Commission]] (FTC) in January 2015 made the following three recommendations:<ref>{{cite web |title=FTC Report on Internet of Things Urges Companies to Adopt Best Practices to Address Consumer Privacy and Security Risks |url=https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/news/press-releases/2015/01/ftc-report-internet-things-urges-companies-adopt-best-practices-address-consumer-privacy-security |website=Federal Trade Commission |access-date=13 September 2024 |language=en |date=27 January 2015}}</ref>
* [[Data security]] – At the time of designing IoT companies should ensure that data collection, storage and processing would be secure at all times. Companies should adopt a "defense in depth" approach and encrypt data at each stage.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Conferences/GSR/Documents/GSR2015/Discussion_papers_and_Presentations/GSR_DiscussionPaper_IoT.pdf |title=Regulation and the Internet of Things |first=Ian |last=Brown |website=Oxford Internet Institute |year=2015 |access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref>
* Data consent – users should have a choice as to what data they share with IoT companies and the users must be informed if their data gets exposed.
* [[Data minimisation]] – IoT companies should collect only the data they need and retain the collected information only for a limited time.

However, the FTC stopped at just making recommendations for now. According to an FTC analysis, the existing framework, consisting of the [[FTC Act]], the [[Fair Credit Reporting Act]], and the [[Children's Online Privacy Protection Act]], along with developing consumer education and business guidance, participation in multi-stakeholder efforts and advocacy to other agencies at the federal, state and local level, is sufficient to protect consumer rights.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ftc.gov/news-events/press-releases/2015/01/ftc-report-internet-things-urges-companies-adopt-best-practices |title=FTC Report on Internet of Things Urges Companies to Adopt Best Practices to Address Consumer Privacy and Security Risks |work=Federal Trade Commission |date=27 January 2015 |access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref>

A resolution passed by the Senate in March 2015, is already being considered by the Congress.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.techbarrista.com/iot-users-could-win-with-a-new-bill-in-the-us-senate/ |title=IoT users could win with a new bill in the US Senate |first=Stephen |last=Lawson |date=2 March 2016 |work=Tech Barrista |access-date=9 December 2019}}</ref> This resolution recognized the need for formulating a National Policy on IoT and the matter of privacy, security and spectrum. Furthermore, to provide an impetus to the IoT ecosystem, in March 2016, a bipartisan group of four Senators proposed a bill, The Developing Innovation and Growing the Internet of Things (DIGIT) Act, to direct the [[Federal Communications Commission]] to assess the need for more spectrum to connect IoT devices.

Approved on 28 September 2018, California Senate Bill No. 327<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billTextClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180SB327|title=California Legislative Information – SB-327 Information privacy: connected devices.}}</ref> goes into effect on 1 January 2020. The bill requires "''a manufacturer of a connected device, as those terms are defined, to equip the device with a reasonable security feature or features that are appropriate to the nature and function of the device, appropriate to the information it may collect, contain, or transmit, and designed to protect the device and any information contained therein from unauthorized access, destruction, use, modification, or disclosure,''"

Several standards for the IoT industry are actually being established relating to automobiles because most concerns arising from use of connected cars apply to healthcare devices as well. In fact, the [[National Highway Traffic Safety Administration]] (NHTSA) is preparing cybersecurity guidelines and a database of best practices to make automotive computer systems more secure.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lexology.com/library/detail.aspx?g=fd6bc26e-dd20-4c4f-897a-5d62484d37ba |title=Legal Developments in Connected Car Arena Provide Glimpse of Privacy and Data Security Regulation in Internet of Things |first=F. Paul |last=Pittman |date=2 February 2016 |work=Lexology |access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref>

A recent report from the World Bank examines the challenges and opportunities in government adoption of IoT.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rasit|first1=Yuce, Mehmet|last2=Claus|first2=Beisswenger, Stefan|last3=Mangalam, Srikanth|last4=Das, Prasanna|first4=Lal|last5=Martin|first5=Lukac|date=2 November 2017|title=Internet of things : the new government to business platform – a review of opportunities, practices, and challenges|pages=1–112|url=http://documents.worldbank.org/curated/en/610081509689089303/Internet-of-things-the-new-government-to-business-platform-a-review-of-opportunities-practices-and-challenges}}</ref> These include –
* Still early days for the IoT in government&nbsp;
* Underdeveloped policy and regulatory frameworks&nbsp;
* Unclear business models, despite strong value proposition&nbsp;
* Clear institutional and capacity gap in government AND the private sector&nbsp;
* Inconsistent [[data valuation]] and management&nbsp;
* Infrastructure a major barrier&nbsp;
* Government as an enabler&nbsp;
* Most successful pilots share common characteristics (public-private partnership, local, leadership)

In early December 2021, the U.K. government introduced the [[2021 State Opening of Parliament#Announced bills|Product Security and Telecommunications Infrastructure bill]] (PST), an effort to legislate IoT distributors, manufacturers, and importers to meet certain [[cybersecurity standards]]. The bill also seeks to improve the security credentials of consumer IoT devices.<ref name="page">{{cite news |last=Page |first=Carly |url=https://techcrunch.com/2021/12/04/uk-internet-of-things-cybersecurity-bill/ |title=Is the UK government's new IoT cybersecurity bill fit for purpose? |work=[[TechCrunch]] |date=2021-12-04 |access-date=2021-12-04 }}</ref>

==Criticism, problems and controversies==

===Platform fragmentation===
The IoT suffers from [[platform fragmentation]], lack of interoperability and common [[technical standard]]s<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mobileworldlive.com/mwc16-articles/iot-experts-fret-over-fragmentation/ |title=IoT experts fret over fragmentation |first=Ken |last=Wieland |work=Mobile World |date=25 February 2016}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.qualcomm.com/news/onq/2016/02/19/fragmentation-enemy-internet-things |title=Fragmentation is the enemy of the Internet of Things |date=19 February 2016 |first=Michael |last=Wallace |website=Qualcomm.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.mckinsey.com/industries/semiconductors/our-insights/internet-of-things-opportunities-and-challenges-for-semiconductor-companies |first1=Harald |last1=Bauer |first2=Mark |last2=Patel |first3=Jan |last3=Veira |title=Internet of Things: Opportunities and challenges for semiconductor companies |work=McKinsey & Co. |date=October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://evothings.com/will-fragmentation-of-standards-only-hinder-the-true-potential-of-the-iot-industry/ |title=Will fragmentation of standards only hinder the true potential of the IoT industry? |first=Aaron |last=Ardiri |work=evothings.com |date=8 July 2014 |access-date=23 September 2016 |archive-date=27 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227182106/https://evothings.com/will-fragmentation-of-standards-only-hinder-the-true-potential-of-the-iot-industry/ |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.arm.com/zh/files/event/ATF2015SZ_A6_Thundersoft.pdf |title=IOT Brings Fragmentation in Platform |work=arm.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.w3.org/Talks/2016/04-27-countering-fragmentation.pdf |title=Countering Fragmentation with the Web of Things: Interoperability across IoT platforms |first=Dave |last=Raggett |work=W3C |date=27 April 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |first=Steve |last=Kovach |url=http://www.businessinsider.com/android-fragmentation-report-2013-7 |title=Android Fragmentation Report |journal=Business Insider |date=30 July 2013 |access-date=19 October 2013}}</ref>{{excessive citations inline|date=April 2019}} a situation where the variety of IoT devices, in terms of both hardware variations and differences in the software running on them, makes the task of developing applications that work consistently between different inconsistent technology [[ecosystem]]s hard.<ref name="Linux Things"/> For example, wireless connectivity for IoT devices can be done using [[Bluetooth]], [[Wi-Fi]], [[Wi-Fi HaLow]], [[Zigbee]], [[Z-Wave]], [[LoRa]], [[NB-IoT]], [[Cat-M1|Cat M1]] as well as completely custom proprietary radios – each with its own advantages and disadvantages; and unique support ecosystem.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.argenox.com/library/iot/ultimate-guide-iot-connectivity/|title=Ultimate Guide to Internet of Things (IoT) Connectivity}}</ref>

The IoT's [[amorphous computing]] nature is also a problem for security, since patches to bugs found in the core operating system often do not reach users of older and lower-price devices.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://techbeacon.com/will-android-fragmentation-spoil-its-iot-appeal |title=Will Android fragmentation spoil its IoT appeal? |first=Floyd N. |last=Piedad |work=TechBeacon|date=8 July 2024 }}</ref><ref name="Goodbye, Android">{{cite web |url=http://motherboard.vice.com/read/goodbye-android |title=Goodbye, Android |website=Motherboard |publisher=Vice |last1=Franceschi-Bicchierai |first1=Lorenzo|date=29 July 2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-android-toxic-hellstew-survival-guide/ |title=The toxic hellstew survival guide |website=ZDnet |last1=Kingsley-Hughes |first1=Adrian |access-date=2 August 2015}}</ref> One set of researchers says that the failure of vendors to support older devices with patches and updates leaves more than 87% of active Android devices vulnerable.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/android-security-a-market-for-lemons-that-leaves-87-percent-insecure/ |title=Android security a 'market for lemons' that leaves 87 percent vulnerable |date=13 October 2015 |website=[[ZDNet]] |first1=Liam |last1=Tung |access-date=14 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |url=https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~drt24/papers/spsm-scoring.pdf |first1=Daniel R. |title=Proceedings of the 5th Annual ACM CCS Workshop on Security and Privacy in Smartphones and Mobile Devices – SPSM '15 |pages=87–98 |last1=Thomas |last2=Beresford |first2=Alastair R. |last3=Rice |first3=Andrew |s2cid=14832327 |publisher=[[Computer Laboratory, University of Cambridge]] |doi=10.1145/2808117.2808118 |access-date=14 October 2015|year=2015 |isbn=9781450338196 }}</ref>

===Privacy, autonomy, and control===
[[Philip N. Howard]], a professor and author, writes that the Internet of things offers immense potential for empowering citizens, making government transparent, and broadening [[information access]]. Howard cautions, however, that privacy threats are enormous, as is the potential for social control and political manipulation.<ref>{{cite book |first=Philip N. |last=Howard |author-link=Philip N. Howard |title=Pax Technica: How the internet of things May Set Us Free, Or Lock Us Up |location=New Haven, CT |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2015 |isbn=978-0-30019-947-5}}</ref>

Concerns about privacy have led many to consider the possibility that [[big data]] infrastructures such as the Internet of things and [[data mining]] are inherently incompatible with privacy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://madsg.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/Designing_the_Internet_of_Things.pdf |title=Designing the Internet of Things|first=Adrian |last=McEwan |date=2014 |access-date=1 June 2016}}</ref> Key challenges of increased digitalization in the water, transport or energy sector are related to privacy and [[cybersecurity]] which necessitate an adequate response from research and policymakers alike.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Moy de Vitry|first1=Matthew|last2=Schneider|first2=Mariane|last3=Wani|first3=Omar|last4=Liliane |first4=Manny|last5=Leitao|first5=João P.|last6=Eggimann|first6=Sven|title=Smart urban water systems: what could possibly go wrong?|journal=Environmental Research Letters|volume=14|issue=8|pages=081001|date=2019|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/ab3761|bibcode=2019ERL....14h1001M|doi-access=free|hdl=20.500.11850/362196|hdl-access=free}}</ref>

Writer [[Adam Greenfield]] claims that IoT technologies are not only an invasion of public space but are also being used to perpetuate normative behavior, citing an instance of billboards with hidden cameras that tracked the demographics of passersby who stopped to read the advertisement.

The Internet of Things Council compared the increased prevalence of [[Surveillance|digital surveillance]] due to the Internet of things to the concept of the [[panopticon]] described by [[Jeremy Bentham]] in the 18th century.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.theinternetofthings.eu/sites/default/files/Rob%20van%20Kranenburg/Panopticon%20as%20metaphor%20for%20the%20IoT_GS%20Dec2011.pdf |title=Panopticon as a metaphor for the internet of things |work=The Council of the Internet of Things |access-date=6 June 2016 |archive-date=27 September 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170927155316/https://www.theinternetofthings.eu/sites/default/files/Rob%20van%20Kranenburg/Panopticon%20as%20metaphor%20for%20the%20IoT_GS%20Dec2011.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref> The assertion is supported by the works of French philosophers [[Michel Foucault]] and [[Gilles Deleuze]]. In [[Discipline and Punish|''Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison'']], Foucault asserts that the panopticon was a central element of the discipline society developed during the [[Industrial Era]].<ref name="ccle.ucla.edu">{{cite web |url=https://ccle.ucla.edu/pluginfile.php/1330126/mod_resource/content/0/foucault.pdf |title=Foucault |publisher=UCLA}}</ref> Foucault also argued that the discipline systems established in factories and school reflected Bentham's vision of [[panopticism]].<ref name="ccle.ucla.edu"/> In his 1992 paper "Postscripts on the Societies of Control", Deleuze wrote that the discipline society had transitioned into a control society, with the [[computer]] replacing the [[panopticon]] as an instrument of discipline and control while still maintaining the qualities similar to that of panopticism.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://ccle.ucla.edu/pluginfile.php/1330127/mod_resource/content/0/Deleuze%20-%201992%20-%20Postscript%20on%20the%20Societies%20of%20Control.pdf |title=Deleuze – 1992 – Postscript on the Societies of Control |publisher=UCLA}}</ref>

[[Peter-Paul Verbeek]], a professor of philosophy of technology at the [[University of Twente]], Netherlands, writes that technology already influences our moral decision making, which in turn affects human agency, privacy and autonomy. He cautions against viewing technology merely as a human tool and advocates instead to consider it as an active agent.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Verbeek |first=Peter-Paul |title=Moralizing Technology: Understanding and Designing the Morality of Things |location=Chicago |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-22685-291-1 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/moralizingtechno0000verb }}</ref>

Justin Brookman, of the [[Center for Democracy and Technology]], expressed concern regarding the impact of the IoT on [[consumer privacy]], saying that "There are some people in the commercial space who say, 'Oh, big data – well, let's collect everything, keep it around forever, we'll pay for somebody to think about security later.' The question is whether we want to have some sort of policy framework in place to limit that."<ref>{{Cite news |first=Diane |last=Cardwell |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/02/18/business/at-newark-airport-the-lights-are-on-and-theyre-watching-you.html |title=At Newark Airport, the Lights Are On, and They're Watching You |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=18 February 2014}}</ref>

[[Tim O'Reilly]] believes that the way companies sell the IoT devices on consumers are misplaced, disputing the notion that the IoT is about gaining efficiency from putting all kinds of devices online and postulating that the "IoT is really about human augmentation. The applications are profoundly different when you have sensors and data driving the decision-making."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Hardy |first1=Quentin |title=Tim O'Reilly Explains the Internet of Things|url=http://bits.blogs.nytimes.com/2015/02/04/tim-oreilly-explains-the-internet-of-things/|work=The New York Times|date=4 February 2015}}</ref>

Editorials at [[WIRED]] have also expressed concern, one stating "What you're about to lose is your privacy. Actually, it's worse than that. You aren't just going to lose your privacy, you're going to have to watch the very concept of privacy be rewritten under your nose."<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.wired.com/2015/02/say-goodbye-to-privacy/ |title=Say Goodbye to Privacy |first=Geoff |last=Webb |date=5 February 2015 |magazine=[[WIRED]] |access-date=15 February 2015}}</ref>

The [[American Civil Liberties Union]] (ACLU) expressed concern regarding the ability of IoT to erode people's control over their own lives. The ACLU wrote that "There's simply no way to forecast how these immense powers – disproportionately accumulating in the hands of corporations seeking financial advantage and governments craving ever more control – will be used. Chances are big data and the Internet of Things will make it harder for us to control our own lives, as we grow increasingly transparent to powerful corporations and government institutions that are becoming more opaque to us."<ref>{{Cite web |first1=Catherine |last1=Crump |first2=Matthew |last2=Harwood |url=http://www.tomdispatch.com/post/175822/tomgram%3A_crump_and_harwood%2C_the_net_closes_around_us/ |title=The Net Closes Around Us |website=[[TomDispatch]] |date=25 March 2014}}</ref>

In response to rising concerns about privacy and [[Smart Technologies|smart technology]], in 2007 the [[British Government]] stated it would follow formal [[Privacy by Design]] principles when implementing their smart metering program. The program would lead to replacement of traditional [[Electricity Meter|power meters]] with smart power meters, which could track and manage energy usage more accurately.<ref>{{cite journal |ssrn=2215646 |title=Britain's Smart Meter Programme: A Case Study in Privacy by Design |first=Ian |last=Brown |s2cid=62756630 |date=12 February 2013  |doi=10.1080/13600869.2013.801580 |volume=28 |issue=2 |journal=International Review of Law, Computers & Technology |pages=172–184}}</ref> However the [[British Computer Society]] is doubtful these principles were ever actually implemented.<ref name="bcs.org">{{cite web |url=https://www.bcs.org/upload/pdf/societal-impact-report-feb13.pdf |title=The Societal Impact of the Internet of Things |website=British Computer Society |date=14 February 2013 |access-date=23 October 2016}}</ref> In 2009 the [[Dutch Parliament]] rejected a similar smart metering program, basing their decision on privacy concerns. The Dutch program later revised and passed in 2011.<ref name="bcs.org"/>

===Data storage===
A challenge for producers of IoT applications is to [[data cleansing|clean]], process and interpret the vast amount of data which is gathered by the sensors. There is a solution proposed for the analytics of the information referred to as Wireless Sensor Networks.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Gubbi|first1=Jayavardhana|last2=Buyya|first2=Rajkumar|last3=Marusic|first3=Slaven|last4=Palaniswami|first4=Marimuthu|s2cid=204982032|date=1 September 2013|title=Internet of Things (IoT): A vision, architectural elements, and future directions|journal=Future Generation Computer Systems|series=Including Special sections: Cyber-enabled Distributed Computing for Ubiquitous Cloud and Network Services & Cloud Computing and Scientific Applications – Big Data, Scalable Analytics, and Beyond|volume=29|issue=7|pages=1645–1660|doi=10.1016/j.future.2013.01.010|arxiv=1207.0203}}</ref> These networks share data among sensor nodes that are sent to a distributed system for the analytics of the sensory data.<ref name="AcharjyaRecognizing17">{{cite book |chapter-url={{Google books|4UW4DgAAQBAJ|page=149|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=Recognizing Attacks in Wireless Sensor Network in View of Internet of Things |title=Internet of Things: Novel Advances and Envisioned Applications |author=Acharjya, D.P. |author2=Ahmed, N.S.S. |editor=Acharjya, D.P. |editor2=Geetha, M.K. |publisher=Springer |pages=149–50 |year=2017 |isbn=9783319534725}}</ref>

Another challenge is the storage of this bulk data. Depending on the application, there could be high data acquisition requirements, which in turn lead to high storage requirements. In 2013, the Internet was estimated to be responsible for consuming 5% of the total energy produced,<ref name=":1" /> and a "daunting challenge to power" IoT devices to collect and even store data still remains.<ref name="HussainEnergy17">{{cite web |url=https://brage.bibsys.no/xmlui/bitstream/handle/11250/2458157/17677_FULLTEXT.pdf?sequence=1  |title=Energy Consumption of Wireless IoT Nodes |author=Hussain, A. |publisher=Norwegian University of Science and Technology |date=June 2017 |access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref>

Data silos, although a common challenge of legacy systems, still commonly occur with the implementation of IoT devices, particularly within manufacturing. As there are a lot of benefits to be gained from IoT and IIoT devices, the means in which the data is stored can present serious challenges without the principles of autonomy, transparency, and interoperability being considered.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal |last=Keller |first=Matthias |date=2021 |title=I4.0 Strategy and Policy Integration in The German Machining Industry |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/359005363 |journal=KU Leuven, WWU, TalTech}}</ref> The challenges do not occur by the device itself, but the means in which databases and data warehouses are set-up. These challenges were commonly identified in manufactures and enterprises which have begun upon digital transformation, and are part of the digital foundation, indicating that in order to receive the optimal benefits from IoT devices and for decision making, enterprises will have to first re-align their data storing methods. These challenges were identified by Keller (2021) when investigating the IT and application landscape of I4.0 implementation within German M&E manufactures.<ref name=":6" />

===Security===
Security is the biggest concern in adopting Internet of things technology,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.businessinsider.in/We-Asked-Executives-About-The-Internet-Of-Things-And-Their-Answers-Reveal-That-Security-Remains-A-Huge-Concern/articleshow/45959921.cms |title=We Asked Executives About The Internet of Things And Their Answers Reveal That Security Remains A Huge Concern |work=Business Insider |access-date=26 June 2015}}</ref> with concerns that rapid development is happening without appropriate consideration of the profound security challenges involved<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Singh |first1=Jatinder |last2=Pasquier |first2=Thomas |last3=Bacon |first3=Jean |last4=Ko |first4=Hajoon |last5=Eyers |first5=David |s2cid=4732406 |title=Twenty Cloud Security Considerations for Supporting the Internet of Things |journal=IEEE Internet of Things Journal |volume=3 |issue=3 |date=2015 |page=1 |doi=10.1109/JIOT.2015.2460333 |url=https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/250441 }}</ref> and the regulatory changes that might be necessary.<ref name=forbes>{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/chrisclearfield/2013/09/18/why-the-ftc-cant-regulate-the-internet-of-things/ |title=Why The FTC Can't Regulate The Internet of Things |first=Chris |last=Clearfield |work=Forbes |access-date=26 June 2015}}</ref><ref name=tinker>{{cite web|url=https://freedom-to-tinker.com/2017/02/18/mitigating-the-increasing-risks-of-an-insecure-internet-of-things/|title=Mitigating the Increasing Risks of an Insecure Internet of Things|publisher=Freedom to Tinker|last=Feamster|first=Nick|date=18 February 2017|access-date=8 August 2017}}</ref> The rapid development of the Internet of Things (IoT) has allowed billions of devices to connect to the network. Due to too many connected devices and the limitation of communication security technology, various security issues gradually appear in the IoT.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ziegeldorf |first1=Jan Henrik |last2=Morchon |first2=Oscar Garcia |last3=Wehrle |first3=Klaus |date=2013-06-10 |title=Privacy in the Internet of Things: threats and challenges |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sec.795 |journal=Security and Communication Networks |volume=7 |issue=12 |pages=2728–2742 |doi=10.1002/sec.795 |arxiv=1505.07683 |s2cid=1208330 |issn=1939-0114}}</ref>

Most of the technical security concerns are similar to those of conventional servers, workstations and smartphones.<ref name="LiSecuring17">{{cite book |chapter-url={{Google books|uW1_CwAAQBAJ|page=PA1|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction: Securing the Internet of Things |title=Securing the Internet of Things |author=Li, S. |editor=Li, S. |editor2=Xu, L.D. |publisher=Syngress |page=4 |year=2017 |isbn=9780128045053}}</ref> These concerns include using weak authentication, forgetting to change default credentials, unencrypted messages sent between devices, [[SQL injection]]s, [[man-in-the-middle attack]]s, and poor handling of security updates.<ref name=":5">{{Cite book|last1=Bastos|first1=D.|last2=Shackleton|first2=M.|last3=El-Moussa|first3=F.|date=2018|title= Living in the Internet of Things: Cybersecurity of the IoT - 2018|pages=30 (7 pp.)|doi=10.1049/cp.2018.0030|isbn=9781785618437|chapter=Internet of Things: A Survey of Technologies and Security Risks in Smart Home and City Environments}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Harbi|first1=Yasmine|last2=Aliouat|first2=Zibouda|last3=Harous|first3=Saad|last4=Bentaleb|first4=Abdelhak|last5=Refoufi|first5=Allaoua|date=September 2019|title=A Review of Security in Internet of Things|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11277-019-06405-y|journal=Wireless Personal Communications|language=en|volume=108|issue=1|pages=325–344|doi=10.1007/s11277-019-06405-y|s2cid=150181134|issn=0929-6212}}</ref> However, many IoT devices have severe operational limitations on the computational power available to them. These constraints often make them unable to directly use basic security measures such as implementing firewalls or using strong cryptosystems to encrypt their communications with other devices<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Liu|first1=Ximeng|last2=Yang|first2=Yang|last3=Choo|first3=Kim-Kwang Raymond|last4=Wang|first4=Huaqun|date=24 September 2018|title=Security and Privacy Challenges for Internet-of-Things and Fog Computing|journal=Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing|language=en|volume=2018|pages=1–3|doi=10.1155/2018/9373961|issn=1530-8669|doi-access=free}}</ref> - and the low price and consumer focus of many devices makes a robust security patching system uncommon.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Morrissey|first=Janet|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/01/22/business/smart-home-buyers-security-risks.html|title=In the Rush to Join the Smart Home Crowd, Buyers Should Beware|date=2019-01-22|work=The New York Times|access-date=2020-02-26|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

Rather than conventional security vulnerabilities, fault injection attacks are on the rise and targeting IoT devices. A fault injection attack is a physical attack on a device to purposefully introduce faults in the system to change the intended behavior. Faults might happen unintentionally by environmental noises and electromagnetic fields. There are ideas stemmed from control-flow integrity (CFI) to prevent fault injection attacks and system recovery to a healthy state before the fault.<ref>{{cite conference |type=MSc |last1=Ahmadi |first1=Mohsen |last2=Kiaei |first2=Pantea| last3=Emamdoost |first3=Navid |date=2021 |title=SN4KE: Practical Mutation Testing at Binary Level|publisher=NDSS Symposium 2021| url=https://www.ndss-symposium.org/wp-content/uploads/bar2021_23017_paper.pdf}}</ref>

Internet of things devices also have access to new areas of data, and can often control physical devices,<ref>{{Cite magazine |url=http://blogs.hbr.org/2013/06/rethinking-security-for-the-in |first=Christopher |last=Clearfield |title=Rethinking Security for the Internet of Things |magazine=Harvard Business Review Blog |date=26 June 2013}}</ref> so that even by 2014 it was possible to say that many Internet-connected appliances could already "spy on people in their own homes" including televisions, kitchen appliances,<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/294889554 |doi=10.1109/GLOCOM.2014.7417597 |isbn=978-1-4799-5952-5 |chapter=An IdM and Key-Based Authentication Method for Providing Single Sign-On in IoT |title=2015 IEEE Global Communications Conference (GLOBECOM) |pages=1–6 |year=2014 |last1=Witkovski |first1=Adriano |last2=Santin |first2=Altair |last3=Abreu |first3=Vilmar |last4=Marynowski |first4=Joao |s2cid=8108114 }}</ref> cameras, and thermostats.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/josephsteinberg/2014/01/27/these-devices-may-be-spying-on-you-even-in-your-own-home/ |title=These Devices May Be Spying on You (Even in Your Own Home) |first=Joseph |last=Steinberg |work=Forbes |date=27 January 2014 |access-date=27 May 2014}}</ref> Computer-controlled devices in automobiles such as brakes, engine, locks, hood and trunk releases, horn, heat, and dashboard have been shown to be vulnerable to attackers who have access to the on-board network. In some cases, vehicle computer systems are Internet-connected, allowing them to be exploited remotely.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wired.com/2015/07/hackers-remotely-kill-jeep-highway/ |title=Hackers Remotely Kill a Jeep on the Highway—With Me in It |first=Andy |last=Greenberg |author-link=Andy Greenberg |magazine=Wired |date=21 July 2015 |access-date=21 July 2015}}</ref> By 2008 security researchers had shown the ability to remotely control pacemakers without authority. Later hackers demonstrated remote control of insulin pumps<ref>''Scientific American'', April 2015, p.68.</ref> and implantable cardioverter defibrillators.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Loukas |first1=George |date=June 2015 |title=Cyber-Physical Attacks A growing invisible threat |url=http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2818550|location=Oxford, UK |publisher=Butterworh-Heinemann (Elsevier)|page=65 |isbn=9780128012901}}</ref>

Poorly secured Internet-accessible IoT devices can also be subverted to attack others. In 2016, a [[distributed denial of service attack]] powered by Internet of things devices running the [[Mirai (malware)|Mirai]] malware [[2016 Dyn cyberattack|took down a DNS provider and major web sites]].<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/technology/2016/oct/26/ddos-attack-dyn-mirai-botnet |title=DDoS attack that disrupted internet was largest of its kind in history, experts say |first=Nicky |last=Woolf |newspaper=The Guardian |date=26 October 2016}}</ref> The [[Mirai (malware)|Mirai Botnet]] had infected roughly 65,000 IoT devices within the first 20 hours.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|url=https://www.usenix.org/system/files/conference/usenixsecurity17/sec17-antonakakis.pdf|title=Understanding the Mirai Botnet|last1=Antonakakis|first1=Manos|last2=April|first2=Tim|date=18 August 2017|website=Usenix|isbn=978-1-931971-40-9|access-date=13 May 2018|last3=Bailey|first3=Michael|last4=Bernhard|first4=Matt|last5=Bursztein|first5=Elie|last6=Cochran|first6=Jaime|last7=Durumeric|first7=Zakir|last8=Halderman|first8=J. Alex|last9=Invernizzi|first9=Luca|publisher=USENIX Association }}</ref> Eventually the infections increased to around 200,000 to 300,000 infections.<ref name=":2" /> Brazil, Colombia and Vietnam made up of 41.5% of the infections.<ref name=":2" /> The Mirai Botnet had singled out specific IoT devices that consisted of DVRs, IP cameras, routers and printers.<ref name=":2" /> Top vendors that contained the most infected devices were identified as Dahua, Huawei, ZTE, Cisco, ZyXEL and MikroTik'''.'''<ref name=":2" /> In May 2017, Junade Ali, a computer scientist at [[Cloudflare]] noted that native DDoS vulnerabilities exist in IoT devices due to a poor implementation of the [[Publish–subscribe pattern]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The "anti-patterns" that turned the IoT into the Internet of Shit / Boing Boing|url=https://boingboing.net/2017/05/03/bad-design-thinking.html|website=boingboing.net|date=3 May 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Ali|first1=Junade|title=IoT Security Anti-Patterns|url=https://blog.cloudflare.com/iot-security-anti-patterns/|website=Cloudflare Blog|date=2 May 2017}}</ref> These sorts of attacks have caused security experts to view IoT as a real threat to Internet services.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.schneier.com/essays/archives/2016/10/we_need_to_save_the_.html |title=We Need to Save the Internet from the Internet of Things |first=Bruce |last=Schneier |work=Motherboard |date=6 October 2016}}</ref>

The U.S. [[National Intelligence Council]] in an unclassified report maintains that it would be hard to deny "access to networks of sensors and remotely-controlled objects by enemies of the United States, criminals, and mischief makers... An open market for aggregated sensor data could serve the interests of commerce and security no less than it helps criminals and spies identify vulnerable targets. Thus, massively parallel [[sensor fusion]] may undermine social cohesion, if it proves to be fundamentally incompatible with Fourth-Amendment guarantees against unreasonable search."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://fas.org/irp/nic/disruptive.pdf |title=Disruptive Technologies Global Trends 2025 |work=National Intelligence Council (NIC) |date=April 2008 |page=27}}</ref> In general, the intelligence community views the Internet of things as a rich source of data.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.wired.com/dangerroom/2012/03/petraeus-tv-remote/ |title=CIA Chief: We'll Spy on You Through Your Dishwasher |date=15 March 2012 |magazine=WIRED |access-date=26 June 2015 |first=Spencer |last=Ackerman}}</ref>

On 31 January 2019, ''The Washington Post'' wrote an article regarding the security and ethical challenges that can occur with IoT doorbells and cameras: "Last month, Ring got caught allowing its team in Ukraine to view and annotate certain user videos; the company says it only looks at publicly shared videos and those from Ring owners who provide consent. Just last week, a California family's Nest camera let a hacker take over and broadcast fake audio warnings about a missile attack, not to mention peer in on them, when they used a weak password."<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2019/01/31/doorbells-have-eyes-privacy-battle-brewing-over-home-security-cameras/|title=The doorbells have eyes: The privacy battle brewing over home security cameras|newspaper=Washington Post|language=en|access-date=3 February 2019}}</ref>

There have been a range of responses to concerns over security. The Internet of Things Security Foundation (IoTSF) was launched on 23 September 2015 with a mission to secure the Internet of things by promoting knowledge and best practice. Its founding board is made from technology providers and telecommunications companies. In addition, large IT companies are continually developing innovative solutions to ensure the security of IoT devices. In 2017, Mozilla launched [[Project Things]], which allows to route IoT devices through a safe Web of Things gateway.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://hacks.mozilla.org/2017/06/building-the-web-of-things|title=Building the Web of Things – Mozilla Hacks – the Web developer blog|website=Mozilla Hacks – the Web developer blog}}</ref> As per the estimates from KBV Research,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kbvresearch.com/ |title=The Step Towards Innovation}}</ref> the overall IoT security market<ref>{{cite web |url=https://kbvresearch.com/global-iot-security-market/ |title=Global IoT Security Market to reach a market size of $29.2 billion by 2022}}</ref> would grow at 27.9% rate during 2016–2022 as a result of growing infrastructural concerns and diversified usage of Internet of things.<ref>{{Cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-34324247 |title=Smart devices to get security tune-up|first=Mark |last=Ward |newspaper=BBC News |date=23 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://iotsecurityfoundation.org/executive-steering-board/ |title=Executive Steering Board |work=IoT Security Foundation}}</ref>

Governmental regulation is argued by some to be necessary to secure IoT devices and the wider Internet – as market incentives to secure IoT devices is insufficient.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.schneier.com/blog/archives/2017/02/security_and_th.html |title=Security and the Internet of Things |first=Bruce |last=Schneier |date=1 February 2017}}</ref><ref name=forbes/><ref name=tinker/> It was found that due to the nature of most of the IoT development boards, they generate predictable and weak keys which make it easy to be utilized by [[man-in-the-middle attack]]. However, various hardening approaches were proposed by many researchers to resolve the issue of SSH weak implementation and weak keys.<ref>{{Citation|last1=Alfandi|first1=Omar|date=2019|series=Lecture Notes in Computer Science|pages=27–39|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-30522-2|last2=Hasan|first2=Musaab|last3=Balbahaith|first3=Zayed|title=Wired/Wireless Internet Communications |chapter=Assessment and Hardening of IoT Development Boards |volume=11618 |doi=10.1007/978-3-030-30523-9_3|s2cid=202550425|url=https://hal.inria.fr/hal-02881745/document}}</ref>

IoT security within the field of manufacturing presents different challenges, and varying perspectives. Within the EU and Germany, data protection is constantly referenced throughout manufacturing and digital policy particularly that of I4.0. However, the attitude towards data security differs from the enterprise perspective whereas there is an emphasis on less data protection in the form of GDPR as the data being collected from IoT devices in the manufacturing sector does not display personal details.<ref name=":6" /> Yet, research has indicated that manufacturing experts are concerned about "data security for protecting machine technology from international competitors with the ever-greater push for interconnectivity".<ref name=":6" />

===Safety===
IoT systems are typically controlled by event-driven smart apps that take as input either sensed data, user inputs, or other external triggers (from the Internet) and command one or more actuators towards providing different forms of automation.<ref name="IoTSan">{{cite conference |title=IoTSan: Fortifying the Safety of IoT Systems |last1=Nguyen |first1=Dang Tu |last2=Song |first2=Chengyu |last3=Qian |first3=Zhiyun |last4=V. Krishnamurthy |first4=Srikanth |last5=J. M. Colbert |first5=Edward |last6=McDaniel |first6=Patrick |date=2018 |location=Heraklion, Greece |conference=Proc. of the 14th International Conference on emerging Networking EXperiments and Technologies (CoNEXT '18) |id=arXiv:1810.09551 |doi=10.1145/3281411.3281440|arxiv = 1810.09551}}</ref> Examples of sensors include smoke detectors, motion sensors, and contact sensors. Examples of actuators include smart locks, smart power outlets, and door controls. Popular control platforms on which third-party developers can build smart apps that interact wirelessly with these sensors and actuators include Samsung's SmartThings,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.smartthings.com/|title=SmartThings.|website=SmartThings.com}}</ref> Apple's HomeKit,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://developer.apple.com/homekit/|title=HomeKit – Apple Developer|website=developer.apple.com}}</ref> and Amazon's Alexa,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://developer.amazon.com/alexa|title=Amazon Alexa|website=developer.amazon.com}}</ref> among others.

A problem specific to IoT systems is that buggy apps, unforeseen bad app interactions, or device/communication failures, can cause unsafe and dangerous physical states, e.g., "unlock the entrance door when no one is at home" or "turn off the heater when the temperature is below 0 degrees Celsius and people are sleeping at night".<ref name="IoTSan" /> Detecting flaws that lead to such states, requires a holistic view of installed apps, component devices, their configurations, and more importantly, how they interact. Recently, researchers from the University of California Riverside have proposed IotSan, a novel practical system that uses model checking as a building block to reveal "interaction-level" flaws by identifying events that can lead the system to unsafe states.<ref name="IoTSan" /> They have evaluated IotSan on the Samsung SmartThings platform. From 76 manually configured systems, IotSan detects 147 vulnerabilities (i.e., violations of safe physical states/properties).

===Design===
Given widespread recognition of the evolving nature of the design and management of the Internet of things, sustainable and secure deployment of IoT solutions must design for "anarchic scalability".<ref name="FieldingArch00">{{cite web |url=https://www.ics.uci.edu/~fielding/pubs/dissertation/fielding_dissertation.pdf |first=Roy Thomas |last=Fielding |title=Architectural Styles and the Design of Network-based Software Architectures |year=2000 |work=University of California, Irvine}}</ref> Application of the concept of anarchic scalability can be extended to physical systems (i.e. controlled real-world objects), by virtue of those systems being designed to account for uncertain management futures. This hard anarchic scalability thus provides a pathway forward to fully realize the potential of Internet-of-things solutions by selectively constraining physical systems to allow for all management regimes without risking physical failure.<ref name="FieldingArch00" />

Brown University computer scientist [[Michael Littman]] has argued that successful execution of the Internet of things requires consideration of the interface's usability as well as the technology itself. These interfaces need to be not only more user-friendly but also better integrated: "If users need to learn different interfaces for their vacuums, their locks, their sprinklers, their lights, and their coffeemakers, it's tough to say that their lives have been made any easier."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Littman |first1=Michael |first2=Samuel |last2=Kortchmar |title=The Path to a Programmable World |url=http://footnote1.com/the-path-to-a-programmable-world/ |website=Footnote |access-date=14 June 2014 |date=11 June 2014 |archive-date=3 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140703123754/http://footnote1.com/the-path-to-a-programmable-world/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Environmental sustainability impact===

A concern regarding Internet-of-things technologies pertains to the environmental impacts of the manufacture, use, and eventual disposal of all these semiconductor-rich devices.<ref name="The Internet of Things Could Drown Our Environment in Gadgets">{{Cite magazine |last1=Finley |first1=Klint |title=The Internet of Things Could Drown Our Environment in Gadgets |url=https://www.wired.com/2014/06/green-iot/ |magazine=Wired |date=6 May 2014}}</ref> Modern electronics are replete with a wide variety of heavy metals and rare-earth metals, as well as highly toxic synthetic chemicals. This makes them extremely difficult to properly recycle. Electronic components are often incinerated or placed in regular landfills. Furthermore, the human and environmental cost of mining the rare-earth metals that are integral to modern electronic components continues to grow. This leads to societal questions concerning the environmental impacts of IoT devices over their lifetime.<ref name="RowlandDesigning15">{{cite book |chapter-url={{Google books|PP1xCQAAQBAJ|page=SA10-PA69|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Designing Connected Products: UX for the Consumer Internet of Things |chapter=Chapter 11: Responsible IoT Design |author=Light, A. |author2=Rowland, C. |editor=Rowland, C. |editor2=Goodman, E. |editor3=Charlier, M. |display-editors=etal |publisher=O'Reilly Media |pages=457–64 |year=2015 |isbn=9781449372569}}</ref>

===Intentional obsolescence of devices===
The [[Electronic Frontier Foundation]] has raised concerns that companies can use the technologies necessary to support connected devices to intentionally disable or "[[Brick (electronics)|brick]]" their customers' devices via a remote software update or by disabling a service necessary to the operation of the device. In one example, [[home automation]] devices sold with the promise of a "Lifetime Subscription" were rendered useless after [[Nest Labs]] acquired Revolv and made the decision to shut down the central servers the Revolv devices had used to operate.<ref>{{cite web |title=The time that Tony Fadell sold me a container of hummus |first=Arlo |last=Gilbert |date=3 April 2016 |access-date=7 April 2016 |url=https://medium.com/@arlogilbert/the-time-that-tony-fadell-sold-me-a-container-of-hummus-cb0941c762c1}}</ref> As Nest is a company owned by [[Alphabet Inc.|Alphabet]] ([[Google]]'s parent company), the EFF argues this sets a "terrible precedent for a company with ambitions to sell self-driving cars, medical devices, and other high-end gadgets that may be essential to a person's livelihood or physical safety."<ref name=effrem>{{cite web |title=Nest Reminds Customers That Ownership Isn't What It Used to Be |date=5 April 2016 |access-date=7 April 2016 |first=Kit |last=Walsh |url=https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/04/nest-reminds-customers-ownership-isnt-what-it-used-be |work=Electronic Frontier Foundation}}</ref>

Owners should be free to point their devices to a different server or collaborate on improved software. But such action violates the United States [[DMCA]] section 1201, which only has an exemption for "local use". This forces tinkerers who want to keep using their own equipment into a legal grey area. EFF thinks buyers should refuse electronics and software that prioritize the manufacturer's wishes above their own.<ref name=effrem/>

Examples of post-sale manipulations include [[List of mergers and acquisitions by Google|Google Nest]] Revolv, disabled privacy settings on [[Android (operating system)|Android]], Sony disabling [[Linux]] on [[PlayStation 3]], and enforced [[EULA]] on [[Wii U]].<ref name=effrem/>

===Confusing terminology===
Kevin Lonergan at ''Information Age'', a business technology magazine, has referred to the terms surrounding the IoT as a "terminology zoo".<ref name="Vitesse Media Plc">{{cite web|title=Taming the IoT terminology zoo: what does it all mean?|url=http://www.information-age.com/taming-iot-terminology-zoo-what-does-it-all-mean-123459907/|website=Information Age|publisher=Vitesse Media Plc|date=30 July 2015}}</ref> The lack of clear terminology is not "useful from a practical point of view" and a "source of confusion for the end user".<ref name="Vitesse Media Plc"/> A company operating in the IoT space could be working in anything related to sensor technology, networking, embedded systems, or analytics.<ref name="Vitesse Media Plc"/> According to Lonergan, the term IoT was coined before smart phones, tablets, and devices as we know them today existed, and there is a long list of terms with varying degrees of overlap and [[technological convergence]]: Internet of things, Internet of everything (IoE), Internet of goods (supply chain), industrial Internet, [[pervasive computing]], pervasive sensing, [[ubiquitous computing]], [[cyber-physical system]]s (CPS), [[wireless sensor network]]s (WSN), [[smart object]]s, [[digital twin]], cyberobjects or avatars,<ref name="Gautier 2011" /> cooperating objects, [[machine to machine]] (M2M), ambient intelligence (AmI), [[Operational technology]] (OT), and [[information technology]] (IT).<ref name="Vitesse Media Plc"/> Regarding IIoT, an industrial sub-field of IoT, the [[Industrial Internet Consortium]]'s Vocabulary Task Group has created a "common and reusable vocabulary of terms"<ref name="Technology Working Group">{{cite web|title=Technology Working Group|url=http://www.iiconsortium.org/wc-technology.htm|publisher=The Industrial Internet Consortium|access-date=21 March 2017}}</ref> to ensure "consistent terminology"<ref name="Technology Working Group"/><ref>{{cite web|title=Vocabulary Technical Report|url=http://www.iiconsortium.org/vocab/index.htm|publisher=The Industrial Internet Consortium|access-date=21 March 2017}}</ref> across publications issued by the Industrial Internet Consortium. IoT One has created an IoT Terms Database including a New Term Alert<ref>{{cite web|title=Acceleration Sensing|url=http://www.iotone.com/term/acceleration-sensing/t19|publisher=IoT One|access-date=21 March 2017}}</ref> to be notified when a new term is published. {{as of|2020|March|}}, this database aggregates 807 IoT-related terms, while keeping material "transparent and comprehensive".<ref>{{cite web|title=IoT Terms Database|url=http://www.iotone.com/terms|publisher=IoT One|access-date=21 March 2017}}</ref><ref name="IoTONEGuide">{{cite web |url=https://www.iotone.com/quick-guide |title=Quick Guide |work=IoT ONE |access-date=26 July 2018}}</ref>

==Adoption barriers==
[[File:WilliamRuhAtIEEETechIgnite2017.jpg|thumb|GE Digital CEO William Ruh speaking about GE's attempts to gain a foothold in the market for IoT services at the first [[IEEE Computer Society]] TechIgnite conference]]

===Lack of interoperability and unclear value propositions===
Despite a shared belief in the potential of the IoT, industry leaders and consumers are facing barriers to adopt IoT technology more widely. Mike Farley argued in [[Forbes]] that while IoT solutions appeal to [[early adopters]], they either lack interoperability or a clear use case for end-users.<ref name="Forbes">{{cite web|title=Why The Consumer Internet of Things Is Stalling|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/ciocentral/2016/09/13/why-the-consumer-internet-of-things-is-stalling/|work=Forbes|access-date=24 March 2017}}</ref> A study by Ericsson regarding the adoption of IoT among Danish companies suggests that many struggle "to pinpoint exactly where the value of IoT lies for them".<ref name="every" />

===Privacy and security concerns===

As for IoT, especially in regards to consumer IoT, information about a user's daily routine is collected so that the "things" around the user can cooperate to provide better services that fulfill personal preference.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.1109/SOCA.2014.58|chapter = IoT Security: Ongoing Challenges and Research Opportunities|title = 2014 IEEE 7th International Conference on Service-Oriented Computing and Applications|pages = 230–234|year = 2014|last1 = Zhang|first1 = Zhi-Kai|last2 = Cho|first2 = Michael Cheng Yi|last3 = Wang|first3 = Chia-Wei|last4 = Hsu|first4 = Chia-Wei|last5 = Chen|first5 = Chong-Kuan|last6 = Shieh|first6 = Shiuhpyng|s2cid = 18445510|isbn = 978-1-4799-6833-6}}</ref> When the collected information which describes a user in detail travels through multiple [[hops]] in a network, due to a diverse integration of services, devices and network, the information stored on a device is vulnerable to [[privacy violation]] by compromising nodes existing in an IoT network.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1016/j.future.2017.11.022|title = IoT security: Review, blockchain solutions, and open challenges|journal = Future Generation Computer Systems|volume = 82|pages = 395–411|year = 2018|last1 = Khan|first1 = Minhaj Ahmad|last2 = Salah|first2 = Khaled| s2cid=3639079 }}</ref>

For example, on 21 October 2016, a multiple [[distributed denial of service]] (DDoS) attacks systems operated by [[domain name system]] provider Dyn, which caused the inaccessibility of several websites, such as [[GitHub]], [[Twitter]], and others. This attack is executed through a [[botnet]] consisting of a large number of IoT devices including IP cameras, [[Residential gateway|gateways]], and even baby monitors.<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1109/JIOT.2018.2847733|title = The Effect of IoT New Features on Security and Privacy: New Threats, Existing Solutions, and Challenges Yet to be Solved|journal = IEEE Internet of Things Journal|volume = 6|issue = 2|pages = 1606–1616|year = 2019|last1 = Zhou|first1 = Wei|last2 = Jia|first2 = Yan|last3 = Peng|first3 = Anni|last4 = Zhang|first4 = Yuqing|last5 = Liu|first5 = Peng|s2cid = 31057653|arxiv = 1802.03110}}</ref>

Fundamentally there are 4 security objectives that the IoT system requires: (1) data [[confidentiality]]: unauthorised parties cannot have access to the transmitted and stored data; (2) data [[integrity]]: intentional and unintentional [[corruption]] of transmitted and stored data must be detected; (3) [[non-repudiation]]: the sender cannot deny having sent a given message; (4) data availability: the transmitted and stored data should be available to authorised parties even with the [[denial-of-service]] (DOS) attacks.<ref>{{Cite book |doi = 10.1109/iThings-GreenCom-CPSCom-SmartData.2016.97|chapter = Data Security and Privacy Challenges in Adopting Solutions for IOT|title = 2016 IEEE International Conference on Internet of Things (iThings) and IEEE Green Computing and Communications (GreenCom) and IEEE Cyber, Physical and Social Computing (CPSCom) and IEEE Smart Data (SmartData) |pages = 410–415|year = 2016|last1 = Supriya|first1 = S.|last2 = Padaki|first2 = Sagar|s2cid = 34661195|isbn = 978-1-5090-5880-8}}</ref>

Information privacy regulations also require organisations to practice "reasonable security". [https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180SB327 California's SB-327 Information privacy: connected devices] "would require a manufacturer of a connected device, as those terms are defined, to equip the device with a reasonable security feature or features that are appropriate to the nature and function of the device, appropriate to the information it may collect, contain, or transmit, and designed to protect the device and any information contained therein from unauthorised access, destruction, use, modification, or disclosure, as specified".<ref>{{Cite web|title=California Legislative Information|url=https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/billNavClient.xhtml?bill_id=201720180SB327}}</ref> As each organisation's environment is unique, it can prove challenging to demonstrate what "reasonable security" is and what potential risks could be involved for the business. Oregon's HB2395 also "requires [a] ''person that manufactures, sells or offers to sell connected device''] '''manufacturer''' to equip connected device with reasonable security features that protect '''connected device and''' information that connected device ''collects, contains, stores or transmits''] '''stores''' from access, destruction, modification, use or disclosure that consumer does not authorise."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Oregon State Legislature|url=https://olis.leg.state.or.us/liz/2019R1/Measures/Overview/HB2395|access-date=14 October 2020|archive-date=30 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200930090054/https://olis.leg.state.or.us/liz/2019R1/Measures/Overview/HB2395|url-status=dead}}</ref>

According to antivirus provider [[Kaspersky]], there were 639 million data breaches of IoT devices in 2020 and 1.5 billion breaches in the first six months of 2021.<ref name="page" />

===Traditional governance structure===
[[File:TownOfInternetOfThingsHangzhou.jpg|thumb|Town of Internet of Things in Hangzhou, China]]
A study issued by Ericsson regarding the adoption of Internet of things among Danish companies identified a "clash between IoT and companies' traditional [[governance]] structures, as IoT still presents both uncertainties and a lack of historical precedence."<ref name=every>{{cite web|title=Every. Thing. Connected. A study of the adoption of 'Internet of Things' among Danish companies|url=https://www.ericsson.com/49928a/assets/local/news/2015/11/every-thing-connected.pdf|publisher=Ericsson|access-date=2 May 2020}}</ref> Among the respondents interviewed, 60 percent stated that they "do not believe they have the organizational capabilities, and three of four do not believe they have the processes needed, to capture the IoT opportunity."<ref name=every/> This has led to a need to understand [[organizational culture]] in order to facilitate [[organizational design]] processes and to test new [[innovation management]] practices. A lack of digital leadership in the age of [[digital transformation]] has also stifled innovation and IoT adoption to a degree that many companies, in the face of uncertainty, "were waiting for the market dynamics to play out",<ref name=every/> or further action in regards to IoT "was pending competitor moves, customer pull, or regulatory requirements".<ref name=every/> Some of these companies risk being "kodaked" – "Kodak was a market leader until digital disruption eclipsed film photography with digital photos" – failing to "see the disruptive forces affecting their industry"<ref name=kodak>{{cite journal|last1=Anthony|first1=Scott|title=Disruptive Innovation: Kodak's Downfall Wasn't About Technology|url=https://hbr.org/2016/07/kodaks-downfall-wasnt-about-technology|journal=Harvard Business Review|publisher=Harvard Business Publishing|access-date=30 March 2017|date=15 July 2016}}</ref> and "to truly embrace the new business models the disruptive change opens up".<ref name=kodak/> Scott Anthony has written in [[Harvard Business Review]] that Kodak "created a digital camera, invested in the technology, and even understood that photos would be shared online"<ref name=kodak/> but ultimately failed to realize that "online photo sharing ''was'' the new business, not just a way to expand the printing business."<ref name=kodak/>

===Business planning and project management===
According to 2018 study, 70–75% of IoT deployments were stuck in the pilot or prototype stage, unable to reach scale due in part to a lack of business planning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Technology_and_Innovation_The_Next_Economic_Growth_Engine.pdf|title=World Economic Forum: The Next Economic Growth Engine – Scaling Fourth Industrial Revolution Technologies in Production|date=January 2018|website=World Economic Forum|page=4}}</ref>{{page needed|date=August 2018}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/05/23/threequarters_of_iot_projects_are_failing/|title=Three-quarters of IoT projects are failing, says Cisco|last=at 11:15|first=Kat Hall 23 May 2017|website=www.theregister.co.uk|language=en|access-date=2020-01-29}}</ref>

Even though scientists, engineers, and managers across the world are continuously working to create and exploit the benefits of IoT products, there are some flaws in the governance, management and implementation of such projects. Despite tremendous forward momentum in the field of information and other underlying technologies, IoT still remains a complex area and the problem of how IoT projects are managed still needs to be addressed.&nbsp;IoT projects must be run differently than simple and traditional IT, manufacturing or construction projects. Because IoT projects have longer project timelines, a lack of skilled resources and several security/legal issues, there is a need for new and specifically designed project processes. The following management techniques should improve the success rate of IoT projects:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Prasher |first1=V. S. |last2=Onu |first2=Stephen |title=The Internet of Things (IoT) upheaval: overcoming management challenges |journal=The Journal of Modern Project Management |date=15 September 2020 |volume=8 |issue=2 |doi=10.19255/JMPM02402 |doi-broken-date=1 November 2024 |url=https://journalmodernpm.com/article-view/?id=408 |language=en |issn=2317-3963}}</ref>
* A separate research and development phase&nbsp;
* A Proof-of-Concept/Prototype before the actual project begins&nbsp;
* Project managers with interdisciplinary technical knowledge&nbsp;
* Universally defined business and technical jargon

==See also==
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* [[Ambient IoT]]
* [[Artificial intelligence of things]]
* [[Automotive security]]
* [[Cloud manufacturing]]
* [[Data Distribution Service]]
* [[Digital object memory]]
* [[Electric Dreams (film)]]
* [[Four-dimensional product]]
* [[Fourth Industrial Revolution]]
* [[Indoor positioning system]]
* [[Internet of Musical Things]]
* [[IoT security device]]
* [[Matter (standard)|Matter]]
* [[OpenWSN]]
* [[Quantified self]]
* [[Responsive computer-aided design]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=notes}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{commons category|Internet of things}}
* {{cite book |url={{Google books|4UW4DgAAQBAJ|page=1|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Internet of Things: Novel Advances and Envisioned Applications |editor=Acharjya, D.P. |editor2=Geetha, M.K. |publisher=Springer |pages=311 |year=2017 |isbn=9783319534725}}
* {{cite book |url={{Google books|uW1_CwAAQBAJ|page=PA1|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Securing the Internet of Things |editor=Li, S. |editor2=Xu, L.D. |publisher=Syngress |pages=154 |year=2017 |isbn=9780128045053}}
* {{cite book |url={{Google books|PP1xCQAAQBAJ|keywords=|text=|plainurl=yes}} |title=Designing Connected Products: UX for the Consumer Internet of Things |editor=Rowland, C. |editor2=Goodman, E. |editor3=Charlier, M. |display-editors=etal |publisher=O'Reilly Media |pages=726 |year=2015 |isbn=9781449372569}}
* {{cite book|url=https://www.amazon.com/Industrial-Internet-Application-Development-development-ebook/dp/B075V92JW7/|title=Industrial Internet Application Development: Simplify IIoT development using the elasticity of Public Cloud and Native Cloud Services|last1=Thomas|first1=Jayant|last2=Traukina|first2=Alena|publisher=Packt Publishing|year=2018|isbn=978-1788298599|pages=25}}
* {{cite book|url=https://www.harpercollinsleadership.com/9780814439777/the-future-is-smart/|title=The Future Is Smart: how your company can capitalize on the Internet of Things--and win in a connected economy |author=Stephenson, W. David|publisher=HarperCollins Leadership |pages=250 |year=2018 |isbn=9780814439777}}

{{Ambient intelligence}}
{{Embedded systems}}
{{emerging technologies|topics=yes|infocom=yes}}
{{Self-driving cars and enabling technologies}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Internet of things| ]]
[[Category:Ambient intelligence]]
[[Category:Technology assessments]]
[[Category:Computing and society]]
[[Category:Digital technology]]
[[Category:21st-century inventions]]